--- Page 1 ---
The United States Oooupation of Haiti, 1915-1934 --- Page 2 ---
BLANK PAGE --- Page 3 ---
The United States
Occupation of Haiti,
1915-1934
Hans Schmidt
RUTGERS UNIVERSITY PRESS
New Brunswtck, New Jersey --- Page 4 ---
Second printing, 1995
Foreword copyright O 1995 by Stephen Solarz
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Schmidt, Hans, 1938The United States occupation of Haiti, 1915-1934 I Hans Schmidt.
2nd printing.
p. cm.
Includes a new foreword by Stephen Solarz.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8135-2203-X (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Haiti-History-American occupation, 1915-1934. I. Title.
F1927.S35 1971
972.94'05-dc20
95-5459
CIP
Copyright O 1971
by Rutgers, The State University
All rights reserved
Manufactured in the United States of America --- Page 5 ---
To Lloyd C. Gardner, Jr. --- Page 6 ---
BLANK PAGE --- Page 7 ---
Contents
Foreword by Stephen Solarz
ix
Acknowledgments
xvii
1 Introduction
2 Haiti before the Intervention
3 The Decision to Intervene
4 The Intervention
5 The Marines Take Charge
6 Reorganization and Rationalization
7 Racial and Cultural Tensions
8 Uplift-The Prospects
9 Uplift-Success and Failure
10 Strikes and Riots
11 Withdrawal
12 Epilogue
Notes
Bibliography
Index
--- Page 8 ---
BLANK PAGE --- Page 9 ---
Foreword
"Those who do not study the past, 9 the great American philosopher to
Santayana once observed, "are condemned
and historian George
repeat it." s>
first American occupation of Haiti,
Forty years after the end ofthe
in
Forces ofthe United States once again possession
with the Armed
edition of Hans Schmidt's definitive acof Port-au-Prince, this new
of Haiti, 1915-1934, could not
count of the United States occupation
For those currently rehave come out at a more timely moment.
who
care
Haitian
as well as those
genuinely
sponsible for our
policy,
this seminal assessabout American policy toward the Caribbean, intervention in Haiti,
ment of what brought about the original U.S.
assignment.
and what went wrong with it, should be a mandatory in Haiti, those opPrior to the most recent American intervention all
about referring to our
posed to the use of force were not at shy Haiti military means.
previous effort to advance U.S. interests in
by the critics sugbogged down earlier in the century,
Having gotten
reason to believe we would once again end
gested, there was every for decades. Yet keeping Santayana's sage
up being stuck in Haiti
strikes a reader of Schmidt's
advice in mind, what most forcefully the differences between the
trenchant analysis is the extent to which
far more
American interventions in Haiti are
signififirst and second
cant than the similarities.
contexts in which the two intervenFor one thing, the historic different. In the early part of the centions took place were entirely
in a kind of imperial competition
tury, the United States was engaged
gotten
reason to believe we would once again end
gested, there was every for decades. Yet keeping Santayana's sage
up being stuck in Haiti
strikes a reader of Schmidt's
advice in mind, what most forcefully the differences between the
trenchant analysis is the extent to which
far more
American interventions in Haiti are
signififirst and second
cant than the similarities.
contexts in which the two intervenFor one thing, the historic different. In the early part of the centions took place were entirely
in a kind of imperial competition
tury, the United States was engaged --- Page 10 ---
X
with the European
FOREWORD
their colonial claims powers, most of whom had long since staked out
mined
in Africa and Asia. The United
to keep the Americas for itself. It had
States was detersult of the Spanish-American War in
acquired Cuba as a reTeddy Roosevelt
1898. It had "taken" Panama, as
And
put it, in 1903. It had invaded
in one of the greatest feats of civil
Nicaragua in 1909.
completed the Panama Canal in 1914. engineering in history, it had
By the last decade of the twentieth
had long since passed. Far from
century, the age of colonialism
tion of new dependencies,
being concerned about the acquisithe former
more interested in giving effect to the colonial powers were now
tion within their former
principle of self-determinaexisted in the earlier part possessions. of the
And unlike the situation which
hemisphere were governed by century, when most countries in the
1990s the only other
autocrats and dictators, by the mida
country in the region besides Haiti that
democracy was Cuba. The United States
was not
use its military power in the
might still be prepared to
Panama and Haiti, but not in Caribbean, as it has in recent years in
that were characteristic
pursuit of the imperialistic
of its earlier interventions.
imperatives
Indeed, the primary difference between the
and 1994 was the motivation. In the
interventions in 1915
makes unmistakably clear, the
former, as Professor Schmidt
der to prevent Germany from United States acted primarily in orit was feared, would threaten establishing a naval base in Haiti that,
In the latter, the
our ability to use the Panama Canal.
eign power the purpose of our intervention was not to
use of Haitian territory for
deny a forrestore to its
military purposes, but to
elected
proper place on Haitian territory the
government of the country.
democraticallyIt is from this fundamental
ferences between the two dichotomy that most of the other difestablish
interventions flow. Instead of
to
duced democracy in 1915 and the years that
moving
it. Among other things, we suspended the followed, we tra-
(when it refused to do our bidding) and
elected legislature
a client president utterly bereft of arranged for the "election" of
was the popular favorite, Dr. Resalvo popular support. Shunted aside
guages and "was greatly beloved
Bobo, who spoke several lanalways had first call on his
in Haiti because the poor .
"idealist and
services" but who was considered an
by the
dreamer . utterly unsuited to be Haiti's
occupation authorities.
president"
years that
moving
it. Among other things, we suspended the followed, we tra-
(when it refused to do our bidding) and
elected legislature
a client president utterly bereft of arranged for the "election" of
was the popular favorite, Dr. Resalvo popular support. Shunted aside
guages and "was greatly beloved
Bobo, who spoke several lanalways had first call on his
in Haiti because the poor .
"idealist and
services" but who was considered an
by the
dreamer . utterly unsuited to be Haiti's
occupation authorities.
president" --- Page 11 ---
FOREWORD
Saddled with the need to defend and
xi
regime, we felt obligated to rule
protect an unpopular puppet
than Haitian law. Unable
on the basis of martial law rather
World War and the
to withdraw even after the end ofthe First
passing of the German
ment we had installed be overthrown
threat, lest the governadministration decided to
and chaos ensue, the Wilson
before the Marines
remain. It would be another fifteen
were withdrawn by President
years
Roosevelt who, as Assistant
Franklin Delano
had helped draft the
Secretary of the Navy under Wilson,
the occupation began. constitution we imposed on Haiti shortly after
In 1994, by contrast, we sent American forces
restore democracy rather than to demean
to Haiti in order to
unpopular client whose main
it. Instead of installing an
brace our cause, we returned qualification was his willingness to emwho had been elected
as president to Port-au-Prince the man
by an overwhelming
in
guably the only truly free and fair
majority what was arof the country. Like Dr. Bobo, presidential election in the history
had thwarted
whose presidential aspirations we
Aristede
three-quarters of a century ago, Father
was a highly intelligent and
Jean Bertrand
who enjoyed widespread
multilingual man of the people
got it right. Unlike
popular support. This time,
our previous intervention
however, we
ance of the Haitian
when we acted in defiIn the short
people, we were now acting with their
run, at least, it has made all
support.
world. In 1915 as the American
the difference in the
Marines
they were obligated to walk down the middle patrolled Port-au-Prince,
being hit on the head by bags of
of the street to avoid
the resentful residents of the
garbage being thrown at them by
an armed insurrection.
city. It wasn't long before they faced
In 1994, the
Haiti were greeted, if not as
American troops landing in
erators who had freed them conquering from
heroes, then at least as librannical regime. Far from
the clutches of a ruthless and tysoon as possible, which wanting the occupying forces to leave as
wanted them to
was the case in 1915, most Haitians in 1994
remain, at least until they disarmed
"attachés" who served as the shock
the thugs and
ment that had oppressed them.
troops for the military governtoo long the first time, there
Indeed, if American troops stayed
being withdrawn too
was reason to be concerned they were
soon the second time.
Another significant difference between the
which has undoubtedly
two interventions,
contributed to the greater popularity of the
utches of a ruthless and tysoon as possible, which wanting the occupying forces to leave as
wanted them to
was the case in 1915, most Haitians in 1994
remain, at least until they disarmed
"attachés" who served as the shock
the thugs and
ment that had oppressed them.
troops for the military governtoo long the first time, there
Indeed, if American troops stayed
being withdrawn too
was reason to be concerned they were
soon the second time.
Another significant difference between the
which has undoubtedly
two interventions,
contributed to the greater popularity of the --- Page 12 ---
FOREWORD
xii
while
the extent to which in 1915 we acted unilaterally,
latter, was
after obtaining a United Nations mandate to
in 1994 we acted only
nationalistic as Haiti, where memodo sO. For a country as fervently
embedded in the folk memory
ries of the earlier intervention remain character of the latest intervention
of the people, the multinational
than it otherwise
has surely made it politically more acceptable
would have been.
difference that emerges from this comThere is at least one other
intervention that is clearly releprehensive assessment of our earlier made about our latest effort to
that might be
vant to any judgments
in Haiti. Almost without exception, as
influence the course of events
of the earlier OCdemonstrates, the leadership
Dr. Schmidt painfully
and Marines who carried it out were
cupation and most of the men with them deeply ingrained racial
white Southerners, who brought
administration
that were totally inimical to an acceptable
prejudices
of the country.
social status was
The Haitian elite, whose claim to a preferential of their own skin
based at least in part on the relative "lightness"
authorities to
the refusal of the occupying
color, were shocked by
To the Marines, a
take note of distinctions based on pigmentation.
from the
as much a "nigger" as a coal-black peasant
mulatto was just
masses, many of whom suffered
countryside. And to the Haitian
system
from the brutality and degradation of an American-imposed considered an inof forced labor, which the occupation authorities works, the Mamethod for the construction of public
dispensable enforced the "corvée" appeared as a twentieth-century
rines who
whose slave rule the Haitian
version ofthe French overlords against
earlier.
people had successfully revolted over a century the American miliBy the time of the U.S. intervention in 1994, far from being totally
tary had been completely integrated and, it now included many
white and largely southern as it was in 1915,
much more enlightened
men and women of color (with presumably
who
number of Hatitian-Americans
views on race) and a significant result, one of the major irritants
were fluent in Creole as well. As a
from the very beginning of
of the previous intervention was absent
for the attitude of
the most recent one, with attendant consequences
the Haitian people toward the current occupation. to conclude that
considering these differences,
One is tempted,
, far from being totally
tary had been completely integrated and, it now included many
white and largely southern as it was in 1915,
much more enlightened
men and women of color (with presumably
who
number of Hatitian-Americans
views on race) and a significant result, one of the major irritants
were fluent in Creole as well. As a
from the very beginning of
of the previous intervention was absent
for the attitude of
the most recent one, with attendant consequences
the Haitian people toward the current occupation. to conclude that
considering these differences,
One is tempted, --- Page 13 ---
FOREWORD
there is little reason to be concerned that
xiii
result, as did the first, in a prolonged
the latest intervention will
lace, for whom nothing
occupation of a resentful popuAmerican military
was more pleasing and popular about the
would be
presence than its termination. Such a conclusion
premature. For one thing, the earlier
nineteen years. The current
intervention lasted
on for nineteen weeks.
one, as of this writing, has barely gone
there
And, as Professor Schmidt
are enough similarities between these
demonstrates,
escapably intertwined
two episodes in our infuture.
history to constitute a cautionary tale for the
In both instances, for
in effective control of example, we had no intention of
Haiti for a prolonged
remaining
stayed there for almost two decades the
period of time. We
opposition to the
first time because, given the
could leave without regime we had installed, there was no way we
going there in
risking the loss of what we had
the first place.
accomplished by
have put in power (albeit far Now, as then, the government we
client president and
more popular and legitimate than the
cant opposition, and parliament we established earlier) faces signifiand United Nations probably could not survive if the United States
(which was scheduled to assume
security in Haiti after the departure of American responsibility for
1995) were to prematurely withdraw the
troops in March of
It remains to be seen how
forces they have sent there.
security force
long it will take to create an
capable of protecting President
indigenous
ernment from those elements of Haitian
Aristede and his govmined to overthrow him.
society that remain deterIn both instances there was also significant
pation of Haiti in the United States.
opposition to the occuof demonstrations and riots in
Ultimately, it was the outbreak
in motion the political forces Haiti against the occupation that set
withdrawal of
in the United States that led to
troops in 1934. A comparable
the
around, particularly if it should lead to the development this time
blood, would almost certainly
shedding of American
produce a similar result.
Interestingly, if the opposition to the first
was led by liberals (who saw it as a classic
American occupation
intervention), the opposition to the second example of an imperialist
conservatives (who failed to see any vital
occupation was led by
interest). Conversely, it was the
connection to our national
conservatives who favored the first
that set
withdrawal of
in the United States that led to
troops in 1934. A comparable
the
around, particularly if it should lead to the development this time
blood, would almost certainly
shedding of American
produce a similar result.
Interestingly, if the opposition to the first
was led by liberals (who saw it as a classic
American occupation
intervention), the opposition to the second example of an imperialist
conservatives (who failed to see any vital
occupation was led by
interest). Conversely, it was the
connection to our national
conservatives who favored the first --- Page 14 ---
xiv
intervention
FOREWORD
liberals who (recognizing the need to safeguard the Canal), and the
supported the second
stake in the restoration of
(believing that we did have a
The main similarity, however, democracy).
the unchanging realities of
has much more to do with some of
ations that have
Haiti than with the changing considermotivated the United
two hundred years, from the time
States. For more than
Haitian people have been afflicted they became independent, the
and repressive regimes, with
by an unending cycle of corrupt
each succeeding
being worse than the one that
government usually
cal soil of Haiti the seeds of preceded it. In the cultural and politirather than later, the most democracy are not easily sown. Sooner,
be withdrawn. And
recent forces of occupation will
hands of the
when they are, the fate of Haiti will be probably in
Haitians themselves, with whom it
the
sarily belongs.
rightfully and necesThe first American intervention in Haiti
sense but a failure in another. To the
was a success in one
strategic
extent that it was motivated
considerations, it was unquestionably
by
Germany nor any other
successful. Neither
there. Our access to the country was able to establish a naval base
to the extent that
Panama Canal remained
we tried to leave Haiti better unhampered. But
the intervention was a dismal failure.
off than we found it,
hospitals were the greatest and most Roads, bridges, schools, and
occupation. But once we
significant manifestation of the
left behind
departed, the physical
soon began to deteriorate. It
infrastructure we
almost all fallen into disrepair and
wasn't long before it had
bitter memories of a racist
disuse. What remained were the
mental contradiction of occupation that had constituted a fundamocracy. >9
our pledge to "make the world safe for deLike our first intervention in Haiti, the second
in its original objective. The
has also succeeded
President Aristede has been demnocraticall-elected returned
government of
political infrastructure of
to power. But whether the
second intervention, lasts democracy, the main contribution of the
which was the
any longer than the physical infrastructure
primary legacy of the first
seen. If democracy, after two
intervention, remains to be
finally takes root in
centuries of false starts and betrayals,
Haiti, the most recent intervention will
right- --- Page 15 ---
FOREWORD
XV
fully be considered a success. But if the restoration of democracy
turns out to be but a brief interlude between the more traditional
forms of repression which have characterized the political system of
Haiti, it will appropriately be judged a failure.
Of the first American occupation of Haiti, as Dr. Schmidt makes
abundantly clear, we have much to be ashamed. Of the second
American intervention in Haiti, particularly if it should lead to an
enduring democracy, there is much of which we can potentially be
proud. Time, as Santayana might have said, will tell.
Stephen Solarz
Washington, D.C.
January 1995
restoration of democracy
turns out to be but a brief interlude between the more traditional
forms of repression which have characterized the political system of
Haiti, it will appropriately be judged a failure.
Of the first American occupation of Haiti, as Dr. Schmidt makes
abundantly clear, we have much to be ashamed. Of the second
American intervention in Haiti, particularly if it should lead to an
enduring democracy, there is much of which we can potentially be
proud. Time, as Santayana might have said, will tell.
Stephen Solarz
Washington, D.C.
January 1995 --- Page 16 ---
BLANK PAGE --- Page 17 ---
Aciknowledgments
Except for several articles dealing with
is the first to be based on archival
special topics, this study
over the past fifteen years. The materials that have been
clude State Department
new sources used in this study opened inpapers, especially the Naval papers; Records Navy Department and Marine Corps
Archives; articles and memoirs
Collection in the National
officers where
written by high-ranking
the Navy
permission to publish had been denied
military
Department; personal papers of
previously by
ment officials.
military and State DepartIam indebted to many people for
of this study. Lloyd C. Gardner, help in the research and writing
me with advice and
Jr., of Rutgers University helped
I. Susman of Rutgers encouragement through every phase. Warren
the earlier stages and University made many helpful suggestions in
of the final manuscript. provided Professors a penetrating critique of a portion
and Dana G. Munro of Princeton Emeritus L. Ethan Ellis of Rutgers
knowledge and insights with me; I University thank them graciously shared their
and their example of historical
both for their interest
University read an early draft of scholarship. the
Sidney W. Mintz of Yale
detailed criticisms. Adam D. Horvath, manuscript and made excellent
Reserve University Press,
currently at Case Western
Colonel Robert D. Heinl, gave me sound advice at a crucial stage.
steered me to
Jr., United States Marine Corps
manuscript. important source materials and read a
(Ret.),
My colleagues at State
portion of the
New York, David Krikun, J. Ignacio University College, New Paltz,
Mendez, Donald Roper, and
University read an early draft of scholarship. the
Sidney W. Mintz of Yale
detailed criticisms. Adam D. Horvath, manuscript and made excellent
Reserve University Press,
currently at Case Western
Colonel Robert D. Heinl, gave me sound advice at a crucial stage.
steered me to
Jr., United States Marine Corps
manuscript. important source materials and read a
(Ret.),
My colleagues at State
portion of the
New York, David Krikun, J. Ignacio University College, New Paltz,
Mendez, Donald Roper, and --- Page 18 ---
xviii
Joseph d'Oronzio read
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
suggestions.
portions of the manuscript and made useful
Many librarians and archivists have
I especially thank Mr. Schwartz of the contributed to this study.
Records Collection, François-Xavier
National Archives Naval
Library, Serge Corvington of the New Grondin of Rutgers University
staffs of the Marine Corps
York Public Library, and the
dria, Virginia, and the Marine Headquarters Historical Section, AlexanI am grateful to the following Corps Museum in Quantico, Virginia.
me access to source materials and archives and libraries for granting
National Archives for the State assisting me in their use: The
White Papers, the Naval Records Department Papers, the Francis
of the Navy Department, the
Collection, the General Records
Commission Papers, the Records Marine of Corps Records, the Forbes
and the records of the Bureau of
the Bureau of Insular Affairs,
The Library of Congress for the Foreign W.
and Domestic Commerce.
Josephus Daniels Papers, the Cordell Cameron Forbes Papers, the
Lejeune Papers, and the Woodrow Wilson Hull Papers, the John A.
Library for the Henry L. Stimson
Papers. Yale University
History Research Office for the Papers. Frank Columbia University Oral
Franklin D. Roosevelt Library,
A. Vanderlip Papers. The
lin D. Roosevelt Papers.
Hyde park, New York, for the FrankThe following have graciously
permission to use photographs: The provided me with or granted me
Combat Pictorial Section,
United States Marine Corps
Museum, Quantico,
Washington, D.C.; the Marine Corps
Geographic
Virginia; Mrs. Virginia A. White; and National
magazine.
My graduate school colleagues Richard
Tom Hulbeck of Auburn
Brody of Queens College,
University of Maryland, Bob Community College, Terry Major of the
Jeff Safford of Montana State Mayer of Newark State College, and
enthusiasm, friendship, and
University buoyed me with their
research phase. Morris Garber many of helpful insights during the early
as a teaching assistant
Rutgers University made my life
concentrate more
simpler and happier SO that I was able to
The State
intently on this project.
University of New York
me a faculty research
Research Foundation granted
My wife Joan has shared fellowship the to pursue my work in this area.
rewards and frustrations throughout.
Hans Schmidt
College, Terry Major of the
Jeff Safford of Montana State Mayer of Newark State College, and
enthusiasm, friendship, and
University buoyed me with their
research phase. Morris Garber many of helpful insights during the early
as a teaching assistant
Rutgers University made my life
concentrate more
simpler and happier SO that I was able to
The State
intently on this project.
University of New York
me a faculty research
Research Foundation granted
My wife Joan has shared fellowship the to pursue my work in this area.
rewards and frustrations throughout.
Hans Schmidt --- Page 19 ---
The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915-1934 --- Page 20 ---
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--- Page 21 ---
Introduction
after the Civil War was characterUnited States foreign expansion
American political and
interest in establishing
ized by an intensified
and the Pacific. Previous American
military control in the Caribbean
around commercial expansion,
interests in these areas had centered
official and private efforts
focusing on the China trade and various
of Commodore
trading advantages such as the activities
to procure
Cornelius Vanderbilt in Nicaragua. Immediately
Perry in Japan and
of State William Seward began the
after the Civil War, Secretary
Alaska in 1867, by
quest for an American empire by purchasing and by attempting to annex
Midway Island in the Pacific,
occupying
Santo Domingo in the Caribbean.
and territorial
toward militant imperialism
The new tendency
of the United States as an indusacquisition reflected the emergence nations in an intense rivalry
trial power competing with European
American expansionists
for world markets and overseas possessions. and Theodore Roosevelt
James G. Blaine, Henry Cabot Lodge,
markets to relieve the
pointed to the economic necessity of foreign States. Military strateglut of industrial production in the United promoted the congists, notably Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan,
naval bases and
struction of a mighty navy, acquisition of foreign canal, and procurement
coaling stations, the building of an isthmian
rivalry and
colonies. Given the pressures of international
of foreign
American diplomatic maneuvers
nascent imperialistic ambitions,
exhibited a new stridency as
during the late nineteenth century
markets and overseas possessions. and Theodore Roosevelt
James G. Blaine, Henry Cabot Lodge,
markets to relieve the
pointed to the economic necessity of foreign States. Military strateglut of industrial production in the United promoted the congists, notably Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan,
naval bases and
struction of a mighty navy, acquisition of foreign canal, and procurement
coaling stations, the building of an isthmian
rivalry and
colonies. Given the pressures of international
of foreign
American diplomatic maneuvers
nascent imperialistic ambitions,
exhibited a new stridency as
during the late nineteenth century --- Page 22 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
Marine Corps landings in Formosa, Japan, Uruguay,
indicated by
Egypt, Haiti, Samoa, Argentina,
Mexico, Korea, Colombia, Hawaii,
preparations, featuring the
and China. Military
Chile, Nicaragua,
of
begun in the 1880s and
construction of a modern fleet warships aftermath of the Spanishthe creation of a general staff in the
with the requisite force
American War, provided the United States
when national
in world power politics. In an era
for participation
of
conquest, the chalsuccess was measured in terms imperialistic of French, British, and
lenge of European rivalry and the example
served as
successes in winning new colonial possessions
German
States. Of the European rivals, Gerpotent stimuli to the United immediate threat to American inconstituted both the most
many
example of expanding national
terests and the most compelling
that of Germany,
greatness. American naval ambition paralleled
in the Pacific
and German and American interests clashed frequently over France in
and Latin America. After the Prussian victory
testament
the United States Marine Corps, in a remarkable the
1870,
aspirations for a place in the sun, adopted
Prussian
to American
uniform headgear.
spiked helmet as dress
expansion were to achieve
The immediate objectives of American
the period from
in the Caribbean and the Pacific. During
hegemony
United States annexed Alaska, Midway, Hawaii,
1867 to 1900 the
Wake, and approximately fifty
Guam, Tutuila, the Philippines,
of these territories prosmaller islands in the Pacific. Acquisition lanes to the Orient and strategic
vided coaling stations along the sea
could operate effectively
bases from which American naval forces
by naval officers
in the Pacific. Most of the islands were governed of the Philippines
The taking
responsible to the Navy Department.
made the United States an Asiatic power.
bound
Caribbean, American interests were strategically
In the
and Asia. The lengthy voyage of the
to developments in the Pacific
Coast around the tip of South
battleship Oregon from the West the ship was needed for action
America to the Caribbean, where
dramatized the urgent
War in 1898,
during the Spantsh-American President Theodore Roosevelt, himself
need for an isthmian canal.
"took" Panama in 1903 and the
a strong advocate of sea power,
sphere of influStates
to stake out a Caribbean
United
proceeded
concern over the security of the
ence that pivoted around strategic
In the
and Asia. The lengthy voyage of the
to developments in the Pacific
Coast around the tip of South
battleship Oregon from the West the ship was needed for action
America to the Caribbean, where
dramatized the urgent
War in 1898,
during the Spantsh-American President Theodore Roosevelt, himself
need for an isthmian canal.
"took" Panama in 1903 and the
a strong advocate of sea power,
sphere of influStates
to stake out a Caribbean
United
proceeded
concern over the security of the
ence that pivoted around strategic --- Page 23 ---
INTRODUCTION
new Panama Canal and extensive
Cuba. The canal,
economic interests in Mexico and
commercial link completed in 1914, became the vital military and
with the West connecting the East Coast of the United
Coast, the Pacific empire, and Asia.
States
As had been true in the Pacific, the American
Caribbean began with commercial
expansion into the
territorial acquisitions and
adventures and culminated in
Rico to the United States in military invasions. Spain ceded Puerto
and established a customs 1898, Roosevelt took Panama in 1903
in 1905, American
receivership in the Dominican Republic
Haiti in
troops occupied Cuba in 1898,
1915, the Dominican
Nicaragua in 1909,
States purchased the
Republic in 1916, and the United
in the so-called banana Virgin Islands in 1916. Marine interventions
wars were
can control in the area, and in several primary instruments of Amerition, lasting intermittently from
cases were of extended duraconsecutively from 1915 to
1909 to 1933 in Nicaragua and
The
1934 in Haiti.
pattern of diplomacy in the Caribbean and Pacific
sharply with American diplomacy
contrasted
torians, focusing on
elsewhere in the world. Hiscies regarding their relationships colonial
with European powers and poliacterize American
spheres of influence, frequently charframework of the liberal diplomacy as having evolved within the broad
who defend American
political tradition. Both those historians
critical
policy and the revisionists who are
assume, from their respective
generally
has been the key historical factor. vantage points, that liberalism
United States
Revisionists have argued that the
pursued an Open Door
in
tury, and that this policy was rooted in policy the twentieth cennationlism" that envisaged
an ideology of "liberal interworld. The United States, capitalist economic expansion in an open
strength in a free-trade world exercising its financial and industrial
dominate within the framework economic system, would thrive and
use of force or the encumbrances of liberal values and without ugly
leading revisionist has
and expenses of colonialism. One
colonialism" inasmuch characterized the policy as "imperial antiism sustained in
as it involved American economic
part by the destruction of other
imperialspheres of influence.' Thus the United
nations' colonial
trade barriers, colonial
States sought to destroy
established by rival enclaves, and economic spheres of influence
powers on the premise that the United States
world exercising its financial and industrial
dominate within the framework economic system, would thrive and
use of force or the encumbrances of liberal values and without ugly
leading revisionist has
and expenses of colonialism. One
colonialism" inasmuch characterized the policy as "imperial antiism sustained in
as it involved American economic
part by the destruction of other
imperialspheres of influence.' Thus the United
nations' colonial
trade barriers, colonial
States sought to destroy
established by rival enclaves, and economic spheres of influence
powers on the premise that the United States --- Page 24 ---
1915-1934
OCCUPATION OF HAITI,
UNITED STATES
in an
and economic potential
best realize its full political
American foreign
could
Traditional historians, defending
of American
open world.
internationalism the embodiment
by law.
policy, see in liberal
and equal rights guaranteed
this
freedom,
and Pacific,
values of democracy, activities in the Caribbean
to the
In view of American
must be severely qualified
open-door characterization
liberal internationalism
liberal,
the plausibility of seeing
of American policy.
point of denying
factor in the formulation
only in those
as a basic or pervasive
liberal internationalism
of influThe United States practiced its own exclusive spheres
where it could not set up
used as a ploy to further
areas Thus we see an open-door policy the United States did not enjoy
ence.
interests in China, where but an exclusive closed-door
American politio-economie power, where the United States
predominant Caribbean and the Pacific,
its own absolute
policy in the
military power to enforce States occupation
exercised sufficient
of this study, the United from any prinThe subject
departure
hegemony. obviously entailed a complete the United States sought
of Haiti,
internationalism. While
not the case in the
ciples of liberal elsewhere in the world, this was became the "Ameran open order which in the early twentieth century Haiti clearly was a case of
Caribbean,
> The occupation of
by the
ican Mediterranean."
diplomacy, as illustrated United
sphere-of-infiuence
from Haiti by
closed-door,
of German businessmen
systematic deportation authorities in the early 1920s. evolution of the Good
States military
that the subsequent
the American
It has been argued
exemplified by
inpolicy in Latin America,
of dominant liberal
Neighbor from Haiti, was an indication foreign policy. This is
withdrawal tendencies in United States assumed United States
ternationalist Good Neighbor policy always
of influence. The
dubious. The
entire area as a special sphere
poscontrol over the
policy was the much-belabored
acid test of the Good Neighbor As soon as the United States perceived
as in Guatemala
ture of noninterventiontism. its hegemony in the Caribbean,
in 1965, it
threat to
Republic
a serious
in 1961, and the Dominican
enunciated durin 1954, Cuba
The Johnson Doctrine, extension of the
scuttled moninterventionism." intervention, was a direct While the ciring the 1965 Dominican and the Wilsonian banana wars. the exclusive
Monroe Doctrine Cold War are in many ways new,
cumstances of the
much-belabored
acid test of the Good Neighbor As soon as the United States perceived
as in Guatemala
ture of noninterventiontism. its hegemony in the Caribbean,
in 1965, it
threat to
Republic
a serious
in 1961, and the Dominican
enunciated durin 1954, Cuba
The Johnson Doctrine, extension of the
scuttled moninterventionism." intervention, was a direct While the ciring the 1965 Dominican and the Wilsonian banana wars. the exclusive
Monroe Doctrine Cold War are in many ways new,
cumstances of the --- Page 25 ---
INTRODUCTION
domination of the Caribbean
powers, by force if
region against incursions by outside
foreign policy.
necessary, remains an axiom of United States
The precedents for the United States
not the Open Door policy in China
intervention in Haiti were
to make the world safe for
or Woodrow Wilson's crusade
of guerrilla wars waged
democracy, but rather the long series
North
against alien races and cultures in
America, the Pacific, and the
western
tacts with alien peoples outside the Caribbean. The abrasive consame time that alien
United States occurred at the
peoples within the United States
subjected to nativist and racist harassment
were being
ment of Indians, lynchings of
marked by brutal treatoriental exclusion, and
immigrants, Ku Klux Klan bigotry,
nativist and racist tendencies systematic suppression of blacks. Internal
of continuing national
were carried abroad when, as a facet
weaker neighboring
growth and vitality, Americans mastered
continental
peoples who occupied the
North America and
contiguous areas in
long history of bloody military overseas. This expansion entailed a
can Indians and
confrontations, first with the Amerisubsequently with Mexicans,
Dominicans, Haitians, Nicaraguans, and
Filipinos, Cubans,
racism and American disdain for
others. These wars involved
ated into torture,
"savages" and frequently
systematic destruction of
degenertactics tantamount to genocide. The
villages, and military
fare, where superior forces
military logic of guerrilla warpitted against elusive,
equipped with modern weapons were
cally indistinguishable poorly equipped guerrillas who were
from
physiand-kill tactics which were most noncombatants, dictated vicious huntof racial and cultural
conveniently rationalized in terms
store of such
prejudices. Americans came equipped with
This
prejudices to go along with their
a
was a world apart from "civilized"
superior firepower.
finements of European
Western wars and the rewho commanded
diplomacy. A United States Army
insurrection
troops during the suppression of the general
in 1900, when questioned
Philippine
of the "ordinary rules of civilized
about American violations
warfare,"
people are not civilized.":
replied simply, "These
The prolonged experience of hostile contact
had a cumulative effect. Each
with alien peoples
in terms of past
new encounter was conceived
experience and almost
partly
always as being outside the
was a world apart from "civilized"
superior firepower.
finements of European
Western wars and the rewho commanded
diplomacy. A United States Army
insurrection
troops during the suppression of the general
in 1900, when questioned
Philippine
of the "ordinary rules of civilized
about American violations
warfare,"
people are not civilized.":
replied simply, "These
The prolonged experience of hostile contact
had a cumulative effect. Each
with alien peoples
in terms of past
new encounter was conceived
experience and almost
partly
always as being outside the --- Page 26 ---
1915-1934
OCCUPATION OF HAITI,
UNTTED STATES
States
which characterized United after 1898,
framework of mutual respect nations. This was especially true Pacific rerelations with European activity in the Caribbean and served sucwhen increased American
of career personnel who
sulted in the creation of a core
By the time of the occupation to
at various colonial outposts. wealth of such experience
cessively the United States had a
earlier banana wars; Major
of Haiti,
marines had fought in
draw upon. Many
of the American-aponsored
D. Butler, first commandant
in the Philippines,
Smedley
d'Haiti, had previously campaigned and Mexico; and Colonel
Gendarmerie Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, of the Marine Expeditionary
China,
commander
landings in
Littleton W. T. Waller, had commanded the marine
Forces in Haiti in 1915, that had achieved notoriety in connection civilCuba in 1906 and before in the Philippines. Many American colonial exwith the Samar atrocities
to Haiti with previous
also came
the most important
ian administrators of the four financial advisers,
and Liberia,
perience; three had held similar posts in Peru, Persia, had held a similar
civilian officials,
service
and the head of the aghaulturat-techaial
toward reposition in Indochina. trend in the twentieth century of liberal
Given the increasing of all men and the new postures
by
spect for the dignity
that were being promoted of indiinternationalism and progressivism colonial experience
administration, the prior
to alien races and
the Wilson
tradition of condescension came to Haiti
viduals and the larger effect in Haiti. Americans
such
cultures had a baneful
and stereotypes that included down
with racist concepts
>> which were handed
equipped characterizations as "gook" and "nigger," e The past experience of
contacts with alien peoples." involved routine patronfrom previous
had all too often As a student of the
governing these peoples by occasional brutality. Cuba has observed,
ization punctuated States military occupation of
and Filipinos,
1906-9 United
with American Indians
alien
the army, in its encounters education in governing complex
had gained "little meaningful
societies"
American troops in Vietnam.
is still in common usage Koreans among as "gooks" in his book The Pueblo
The term "gook" refers to North
remains symptomatic
Admiral Daniel V. Gallery 1970). Common use of the States. term "nigger" The derisive term "grenser,"
Incident (New York, racism within the United Mexicans, was not current in Haiti.
of white American to Latin Americans, especially
elsewhere applied
with American Indians
alien
the army, in its encounters education in governing complex
had gained "little meaningful
societies"
American troops in Vietnam.
is still in common usage Koreans among as "gooks" in his book The Pueblo
The term "gook" refers to North
remains symptomatic
Admiral Daniel V. Gallery 1970). Common use of the States. term "nigger" The derisive term "grenser,"
Incident (New York, racism within the United Mexicans, was not current in Haiti.
of white American to Latin Americans, especially
elsewhere applied --- Page 27 ---
INTRODUCTION
Haitians derived from nineWhile American attitudes toward
and experience
teenth-century Indian wars, previous banana wars, of the intervenwith blacks in the United States, the circumstances
America
tion were related to the emergence of twentieth-century The United States had
as the dominant power in the Caribbean.
the withdrawal
achieved naval supremacy in the Caribbean upon in 1905. Neverof the larger units of Britain's West India squadron
susceptible
American hegemony in the area was considered
theless,
rivals, principally Germany, which posto challenge by European
State and Navy Department
sessed greater overall naval strength. acquiring a naval base in
officials felt the possibility of Germany's American hegemony and to
the Caribbean to be a grave threat to
because of this postuthe security of the Panama Canal. Largely
Haiti, the
danger, United States troops occupied
lated military
Islands, and parts of Cuba in 1915,
Dominican Republic, the Virgin
of
thereby completing the American garrisoning
1916, and 1917,
of British Jamaica. In 1917
the Greater Antilles with the exception
controlled all the
American troops, plus the British in Cuba Jamaica, in the west to Puerto
major islands in the Caribbean from thereby securing the several
Rico and the Virgin Islands in the east,
German
the Panama Canal against possible
sea lanes approaching
The
of Haiti, which had
attack during World War I.
occupation German hands, was thus
most likely to fall into
been considered
short-term measure to ensure American
conceived as an important
In the context of long-term
military hegemony in the Caribbean. and the Caribbean, the occupaAmerican expansion in the Pacific
in the continuing
tion of Haiti constituted another sequent step influence.
formation of exclusive American spheres of
intervention in Haiti took place at a time when, irrespective
The
of American military incursions in the
of the relentless progression of United States foreign policy was
Caribbean, the official posture
the
of smaller nations.
of conciliation and respect for
rights
one
of State William Jennings Bryan
President Wilson and Secretary
the use of force
both anti-imperialists insofar as they abjured
were
Wilson's public statements about never
in international relations.
of
conquest, 9> about
seeking "one additional foot territory by
9,
again
countries on "terms of equality and honor,"
treating Latin-American world "safe for democracy" created a comand about making the
in the
of the relentless progression of United States foreign policy was
Caribbean, the official posture
the
of smaller nations.
of conciliation and respect for
rights
one
of State William Jennings Bryan
President Wilson and Secretary
the use of force
both anti-imperialists insofar as they abjured
were
Wilson's public statements about never
in international relations.
of
conquest, 9> about
seeking "one additional foot territory by
9,
again
countries on "terms of equality and honor,"
treating Latin-American world "safe for democracy" created a comand about making the --- Page 28 ---
OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1984
UNITED STATES
for the intervention.
scenario which served as tendencies background in United States policy
pelling indicative of the coercive
American republics
More
remarks about teaching South
that the United
were Wilson's
and his frequent insistence
demoto "elect good men,"
to promote constitutional, the reality of
States had a moral responsibility the Caribbean area. In Haiti
cratic government in contradicted the gloss of liberal protesta- have
American actions sharply
sincere these protestations debasement may
tions, however self-righteously reinforced by the current far below levels
been. Racist preconceptions, placed the Haitians
of Haiti's political institutions, necessary for democracy, self-government, narcissist comAmericans considered The generous and even noble by self-defeatand constitutionalism. American civilization was stymied centuries of
pulsion to bestow
cultivated during several
the
ing ethnocentric prejudices, and black slaves, which stigmatized
domination over Indians
and culturally inferior. Moreover, States
subject peoples as genetically always gave first priority to United
the Occupation in and Haiti economic interests.
coupled with
political, belief military, that Haitians were inherently inferior, in the Caribbean, led
The dictates of State Department diplomacy
ideal of spreadthe
perversion of the declared missionary in the process of
to grotesque democracy. Indeed, the Occupation, consistently suping liberal unwelcome foreign military domination, denied elementary politiexercising local democratic institutions and order, stability, and constitupressed liberties. Wilson's obsession with law and the sanctity of legal
cal
implying government by
based on the
tionalism,
translated into rigid authoritarianism
This
contracts, was Haitians were incapable of self-government. for United
assertion that
and a rationalization
assertion was in part an apology but it was also basic to American of building prejuStates military dictation, blacks and Latin Americans. Instead were quite
dices regarding democratic institutions which, liberal on paper, democratic phifrom existing and had long incorporated associated the
with the French
impressive and governmental machinery overrode them and illegally
losophy the United States blatantly
system. One
Revolution,
antidemocratic
forced through its own authoritarian, Wilson's passion for constitutionalsm, have
might have expected, given
Constitution of 1918 would
that the new American-sponsored
ization
assertion was in part an apology but it was also basic to American of building prejuStates military dictation, blacks and Latin Americans. Instead were quite
dices regarding democratic institutions which, liberal on paper, democratic phifrom existing and had long incorporated associated the
with the French
impressive and governmental machinery overrode them and illegally
losophy the United States blatantly
system. One
Revolution,
antidemocratic
forced through its own authoritarian, Wilson's passion for constitutionalsm, have
might have expected, given
Constitution of 1918 would
that the new American-sponsored --- Page 29 ---
INTRODUCTION
document. It was not. Its most
been an exemplary, enlightened
of alien landownership,
important provisions were the legalization bicameral Haitian legislature,
indefinite suspension of the elected
of judges, and legalizatemporary suspension of the irremovability occupation. The new Contion of all acts of the American military
ends, was rammed
stitution, clearly a device to serve American
plebiscite after
through by means of an illegal, marine-supervised competent to tamper
the Haitian legislature, the only body legally law, was summarily
with the constitution under existing Haitian alteration of the longdisbanded because it refused to consider any
as a bulwark
which outlawed alien landownership
standing precept
domination. The elected legisagainst recurrence of white foreign Council of State appointed by
lature was henceforth replaced by and a did not sit again until after
the occupation's client-president, of 1929. Respect for law and
strikes and riots
the anti-American
only in cases which suited American purlegal contracts applied
Treaty of 1915, in effect a unilateral
poses. The Haitian-American
was frequently cited
document executed by the State Department,
commitfor continuing the occupation, a binding
as justification
United States was morally and legally obligated
ment by which the
until 1936. That the treaty could have
to continue the occupation
the same way that it was
been abrogated at any time in exactly
of Haitian naoriginally imposed, with the enthusiastic approval
when the
until after the 1929 uprisings,
tionalists, was ignored
termination of the occupation as
United States decided on early
the 1915 treaty was neatly
American ends. At that stage
best serving
the interests of American bondjettisoned. Legal contracts involving
and exactingly
holders were another matter; these were rigorously
enforced.
indications of the extent to which liberal
Perhaps the most telling
under the pressures
democratic missionary impulses were distorted forced-labor corvée used
of racist colonial realities were the massive basic
operative in
by the marines to build roads, and the
development policy,
should
occupation programs, that economic
many
agriculture financed by private
come about through plantation establishment of foreign-dominated
American investments. The
destruction of the existing miniplantation agriculture necessitated
peasant freeholders, and
fundia land-tenure system with its myriad
; these were rigorously
enforced.
indications of the extent to which liberal
Perhaps the most telling
under the pressures
democratic missionary impulses were distorted forced-labor corvée used
of racist colonial realities were the massive basic
operative in
by the marines to build roads, and the
development policy,
should
occupation programs, that economic
many
agriculture financed by private
come about through plantation establishment of foreign-dominated
American investments. The
destruction of the existing miniplantation agriculture necessitated
peasant freeholders, and
fundia land-tenure system with its myriad --- Page 30 ---
OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED STATES
farmers into latifundian
converting these independent tradition was historically
implied
American liberal democratic
farmers;
peons. The
ideal of independent yeoman have destroyed
rooted in the Jeffersonian agriculture in Haiti would
characterplantation
system
introducing and substituted a socioeconomic
Likewise, the
such a system
antidemocratic political regimes. roped together
istic of oligarchic, unpaid conscripts were sometimes the British in
corvée, in which
in the corvée employed by
to the
in gangs, had its parallel and was obviously antithetical
nineteenth-century liberal Egypt values.
intendevelopment of
American liberal democratic of unThe perversion of professed function of a whole constellation
tions was, of course, the well as of the racial and cultural prejufavorable circumstances, as
was imposed and mainof the invaders. That the occupation
elections, since
dices
precluded democratic defeat for the
tained by force effectively resulted in humiliation and
the afterelections would have
elections were fnally held in
States. When free
and moderate candiUnited
all pro-American
force involved
math of the 1929 uprisings, Maintaining the occupation by patterns estabdates lost decisively.
who, following
miliheavy reliance on military personnel were often inclined toward of
lished in prior colonial experience,
reflected in the posting occudictation. United States priorities, of all phases of the
tary
general as supreme commander extractive fiscal managea marine and in the rigorously conservative, consistently placed the interpation ment of Haitian government above money, those of Haiti and correspondingly
ests of the United States
meaningful Haitian partici- ecofor introducing
American
narrowed opportunities policy was linked to anticipated focused on developpation. Economic into Haiti, and consequently
education for
nomic expansion agriculture and manual-technical democratic privileges
ment of plantation literacy and famniliarization with all the built-in handicaps
the Haitians;
Adding to
roots for
and processes were neglected. the absence of viable, organic
conon the American side was Haiti. Behind the façade of democratic a
democratic liberalism in
lay
the national credo
Trbweisente-smaentat
stitutions and
militarism, and class exploitation. and avoid
century of political despotism, Haitians had learned to distrust never
The vast majority of
which always took and
gave.
contact with the government,
democratic privileges
ment of plantation literacy and famniliarization with all the built-in handicaps
the Haitians;
Adding to
roots for
and processes were neglected. the absence of viable, organic
conon the American side was Haiti. Behind the façade of democratic a
democratic liberalism in
lay
the national credo
Trbweisente-smaentat
stitutions and
militarism, and class exploitation. and avoid
century of political despotism, Haitians had learned to distrust never
The vast majority of
which always took and
gave.
contact with the government, --- Page 31 ---
INTRODUCTION
difficulties realized from the outset,
Despite all the apparent
the rhetoriUnited States officials persisted in publicly maintaining
misillusion that the occupation was a noble and self-sacrificing
cal
liberalism. This is not to say that the idealsion to plant democratic
most Americans would have liked
Doubtless
ists were hypocrites.
liberalism into Haiti, but the sentiments
to introduce democratic
irrelevant. The rhetoric of
under the circumstances, simply
were,
based on relations with European powers
liberal internationalism, all American foreign policy, was wildly out
and SO much a part of
factors
with respect to Haiti, where SO many contradictory
of place
were operative.
of the American presence in Haiti was maThe dominant theme
American efforts to uplift and
terialistic rather than idealistic.
achievements, technological
"civilize" Haiti emphasized material
and the cultivation of
modernization, organizational efficiency,
attitudes. The Occupragmatic as opposed to esthetic or spiritual
and public
excelled at the construction of roads, hospitals, and
pation
fit the methods
priorities
buildings. The materialistic approach and also conformed to Ameridictated by selfish American purposes
of political
which held that Haitians were incapable
can prejudices, achievements. It was hoped that Haiti, despite the
and intellectual
would be developed into a prosperalleged inferiority of Haitians,
leadership and technological
with the help of American
ous country
States would first create what were thought to
genius. The United
bases for advanced civilization, SO that
be the prerequisite material
future time might attempt the
Haitians at some undetermined
subtleties of American political institutions. materialistic uplift in Haiti
The American policy of pragmatic, the
reform moverooted in aspects of
Progressive
enwas conceptually States and in models taken mainly from
ment in the United
The Progressive movement in
lightened British colonial experience.
based on
States had a strong technocratic orientation,
the United
would come about through increased techthe belief that progress
of existing institutions.* With
nical efficiency and rationalization States, the Progressive, pragmatic
respect to blacks in the United
1895 Atlanta Comproapproach involved Booker T. Washington's cultural, and social aspiramise, with its abnegation of intellectual, education and material
tions for blacks in favor of manual-technical
aspects of
Progressive
enwas conceptually States and in models taken mainly from
ment in the United
The Progressive movement in
lightened British colonial experience.
based on
States had a strong technocratic orientation,
the United
would come about through increased techthe belief that progress
of existing institutions.* With
nical efficiency and rationalization States, the Progressive, pragmatic
respect to blacks in the United
1895 Atlanta Comproapproach involved Booker T. Washington's cultural, and social aspiramise, with its abnegation of intellectual, education and material
tions for blacks in favor of manual-technical --- Page 32 ---
OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED STATES
These
at low-status trades. technothrough efficient performance: in Haiti. The
betterment
by the Occupation
into the
concepts were employed of Progressivism had persisted with the efforts
cratic, materialistic aspects accelerated, as for instance
1920s and were even
Herbert Hoover to increase government posting
of Commerce
commerce by
of Secretary
United States foreign
missions. In Haiti
efficiency in assisting to American diplomatic
free rein,
agents
was given
active commercial
impulse
was
technical Progressive
a whose culture
the materialistic, objects, Haitian "Negroes"
to interfere
since the human
and were not permitted thus beheld in contempt, had no rights designs of the occupiers. Haiti devoid of
with the more enlightened isolated technocratic Progressivism,
came a test case of
with all the stops pulled.
and
liberal democratic trappings,
technical expertise,
its
commitment to efficiency, methods and models drawn
American
can be seen in the
decision in
rational organization
The most important
in setting up the Occupation. of overall authority to an American
upon
was the granting
official. The marine general
this respect instead of a civilian
absolute authority
military officer
high commissioner had the
as
who served American the civilian facets of
Occupation.
both the military and
the chain of command
over
of this system was to rationalize
military conThe effect
civilian-military feuding, to strengthen authority as opby eliminating
and to emphasize command with the Haitians.
trol of the country,
relationship
the
or participatory
cited was
posed to a consensual
actions most frequently
authoriThe model for American which was similarly a rigid
occupation of Egypt,
commissioner. American
British
an all-powerful high
and the "betarian system run by
with British rule in India intention was
officials also drew analogies of Porfirio Diaz in Mexico. The
for the
nevolent" dictatorship regime that would exercise power and backto set up an authoritarian because of their alleged inferiority
good of people who, know what was good for themselves. under the
wardness, did not Haitian to serve as client-president
the
In selecting a
of the American high commissioner,
authority and protection
term and social category "Negro" included in Latin
discrimination the
in Haiti and elsewhere
e In American racial of Negroid ancestry, while mulattoes and blacks. The United
people of all proportions distinctions were made between disregarding local distinctions.
America important its own racial ideology in Haiti,
States applied
regime that would exercise power and backto set up an authoritarian because of their alleged inferiority
good of people who, know what was good for themselves. under the
wardness, did not Haitian to serve as client-president
the
In selecting a
of the American high commissioner,
authority and protection
term and social category "Negro" included in Latin
discrimination the
in Haiti and elsewhere
e In American racial of Negroid ancestry, while mulattoes and blacks. The United
people of all proportions distinctions were made between disregarding local distinctions.
America important its own racial ideology in Haiti,
States applied --- Page 33 ---
INTRODUCTION
who shared a materialistic,
United States settled upon an individual
durtechnocratic concept of progress. Louis Borno, client-president was
when the American uplift program
ing the eight-year period admirer of Mussolini and an advocate
in full swing, was an avowed
the fastest way to modernize
of complete American domination as and efficient governmental
Haiti and reconstruct viable economic Haiti in American technologiinstitutions. Borno saw salvation for
As a self-styled nacal prowess and disciplined technical efficiency. nationalists who opposed
tionalist, he had no sympathy for Haitian
Borno repeatedly
as offensive to national pride.
the occupation
nationalist opposition, which included most
denounced the Haitian
of collaborators, as
politically aware Haitians except a minority
of the Haitian
against the best interests
traitors who were conspiring
deemed too ignorant to particimasses. The masses, in turn, were
the benefits that the
pate in political processes or to appreciate
occupation was bringing them. ironies of the occupation. While
Therein lay one of the principal
reform was
modern
materialistic approach to
quite
the technical,
to the latest deand enlightened in the sense of being comparable the Occupation in
velopments in advanced industrial countries, virtue of American
already assured of absolute power by
Haiti,
those elements which indigemilitary presence, lacked precisely movements relied upon to achieve
political
nous technoprogressive Fascism in Italy and Germany, also dedicated
and maintain power.
efficiency, was based on mass support
to progress through technical
public relations techniques,
achieved through modern, sophisticated leadership, and ethnic or racial
including nationalism, charismatic
movement was also
elitism. In the United States the Progressive charisma of Teddy Rooseassociated with nationalism, the personal ethnic and racial elitism
velt and Woodrow Wilson, and with
laws, and
exemplified by discrimination against blacks, immigration Haiti these elements
proposals for human genetical selectivity. In
entailed forinstead of nationalism, the Occupation
were lacking:
under an autocratic marine general; ineign military domination ethnic and racial elitism, the Americans apstead of'appealing to
ethnic and racial contempt; instead of
proached Haitians with
had client-President Borno,
charismatic leadership, the Occupation
and who was dewho
disparaged his countrymen
a man
publicly
and racial elitism
velt and Woodrow Wilson, and with
laws, and
exemplified by discrimination against blacks, immigration Haiti these elements
proposals for human genetical selectivity. In
entailed forinstead of nationalism, the Occupation
were lacking:
under an autocratic marine general; ineign military domination ethnic and racial elitism, the Americans apstead of'appealing to
ethnic and racial contempt; instead of
proached Haitians with
had client-President Borno,
charismatic leadership, the Occupation
and who was dewho
disparaged his countrymen
a man
publicly --- Page 34 ---
OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED STATES
all the
In effect, the Occupation embodied but was
spised as a collaborator. of contemporary Italian fascism, all the technical
progressive attributes in human relationships. For
crippled by failures
and modern rational organization, results.
expertise, scientific agriculture, achieved only marginal on time,
the Occupation's uplift programs aspiring to make the trains run such as
Borno and the Americans,
the successes of Mussolini, which the
from achieving
through
were precluded because of the very circumstances
they were, held power.
elitism failing because of an
Occupation of modern technological
techniques was
The irony
modern political
in American
obtuse lack of complementary
Irrationalism
effectivecompounded by other contradictions. consistently hampered the
racial and cultural prejudices rational uplift measures. The American-nurtured as an effiness of enlightened, rationally and plausibly conceived stunted in
Haitian constabulary,
force, was irrationally
by a
peacekeeping
as expressed
cient, nonpartisan by the American racist dogma,
trust a nigger
its development
that "you can never
commander of the Occupation,
focusing on manual-technical in
6 Educational policy,
education for blacks
with a gun."
functional
racial
training similar to contemporary blighted by cultural and
of
the United States, was variously Hoover sent a distinguished group
difficulties. When President Haiti to investigate Haitian education,
American educators to
the United States Navy
black
stranded and humiliated because
utilizing
they were
them. American agricultural ventures,
by
refused to transport
in scientific agriculture, were plagued disdain for
the latest developments failures attributable to an irrational 1929 the head of
a series of disastrous
of local peasants. In Haitian peasants
the agricultural experience Technique reported that
the American Service
than American plantations
cotton more successfully
the Americans prowere growing the latest scientific methods; in the bolls was
which employed plants, but the amount of cotton local methods.
duced healthier obtained by Haitian farmers using served to underless than that
of Jim Crow racial segregation
to train
Likewise, the policy
administrators methods.
efforts by American governmental bureaucratic
mine subordinates in efficient, rational, limited the effectiveness
Haitian cultural antagonisms severely
after the
Racial and
programs. Instead of modeling
of progressive development
peasants
the agricultural experience Technique reported that
the American Service
than American plantations
cotton more successfully
the Americans prowere growing the latest scientific methods; in the bolls was
which employed plants, but the amount of cotton local methods.
duced healthier obtained by Haitian farmers using served to underless than that
of Jim Crow racial segregation
to train
Likewise, the policy
administrators methods.
efforts by American governmental bureaucratic
mine subordinates in efficient, rational, limited the effectiveness
Haitian cultural antagonisms severely
after the
Racial and
programs. Instead of modeling
of progressive development --- Page 35 ---
INTRODUCTION
Americans, many Haitians were alienated
and condescension.
by American arrogance
Within the United States, political
tion of Haiti raised questions about controversy over the occupasystem, American democratic
the American free enterprise
can political and social
ideals, and the very nature of Ameriimperialism profited a institutions. Anti-imperialists argued that
men, while the expenses privileged of
minority of American businessborne by all the people. The conquest and military occupation were
subjugation of alien peoples invasion of foreign territories and
of democracy and individual contradicted basic American doctrines
argued that an America bent liberty. Opponents of the occupation
a free liberal
on foreign conquest could not remain
democracy at home, Anti-imperialists
ing, James Weldon Johnson, Senators
Ernest GruenKing, and Marine Corps General
William Borah, and William
the marines invaded Haiti
Smedley D. Butler charged that
Bank of New York.
as bill collectors for the National
of forced labor for Marine suppression of Haitian revolts and City use
ties by Republican military road building were denounced as atrociDemocratic
politicians seeking to discredit the incumbent
administration in 1920. The
character of the Occupation, the
absolutely authoritarian
suppression of local democratic unchallenged military dictation,
newspaper editors prompted institutions, and jailings of Haitian
idealists who saw in the
vigorous denunciations from American
can political morality. occupation a dangerous breach in AmeriImperialists answered
gression and military conquest by
denunciations of agburden" and citing benefits that alluding to the "white man's
part of America's enlightened subject peoples would receive as
progressivism by the sword. crusade to spread democracy and
In sum, the occupation of Haiti was both
America's quest for empire and
a logical extension of
contradictions involved in that a clear example of many of the
tions were by no means
quest for empire. These contradicconflicts between American successfully resolved in Haiti-indeed, the
tween democratic
racism and rational progressivism, bemissionary zeal and egalitarianism and military conquest, and between
exacerbated. At the economic exploitation were, in some
same time, American
ways,
ceptible changes during the course of the policy underwent peroccupation, adapting to
democracy and
In sum, the occupation of Haiti was both
America's quest for empire and
a logical extension of
contradictions involved in that a clear example of many of the
tions were by no means
quest for empire. These contradicconflicts between American successfully resolved in Haiti-indeed, the
tween democratic
racism and rational progressivism, bemissionary zeal and egalitarianism and military conquest, and between
exacerbated. At the economic exploitation were, in some
same time, American
ways,
ceptible changes during the course of the policy underwent peroccupation, adapting to --- Page 36 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
new pressures of nationalism abroad and opposition to military expansion at home. The occupation began as a military invasion and
ended as a conspicuous and presumably final renunciation of interventionism. American withdrawal from Haiti in 1934 was hailed as
a positive affirmation of the new Good Neighbor policy in Latin
America. --- Page 37 ---
Haiti before the
Intervention
the western third of the island of
The Republic of Haiti occupies
the Windward Passage
Hispaniola, which lies sixty miles across
with the
Province in Cuba. Haiti shares Hispaniola
from Oriente
The land area of Haiti is approximately oneDominican Republic.
the state of New Jersey. In 1915 Haiti's
third greater than that of
million
the vast majority
population was estimated at two
persons, independent farming.
of whom earned their livelihood at small-scale city, had a population of
Port-au-Prince, the capital and only large of the population was
about 100,000. From 95 to 97 percent
illiterate."
States, Haiti is the oldest independent nation
After the United
Independence was achieved during
in the Western Hemisphere.
slave revolt led by Tousthe French Revolution after a protracted
both of whom had
saint Louverture and Jean Jacques Dessalines,
defeated an
slaves. Under Dessalines, black slaves decisively
been
of French troops commanded by Napoleon's
impressive contingent Leclerc. On January 1, 1804, revolutionary
brother-in-law General
the new nation. The French
chiefs met at Gonaives and proclaimed discarded in favor of the
colonial name of Saint Domingue was
aboriginal term "Haiti," meaning land of mountains.
was the
At the time of the French Revolution, Saint Domingue As early
colonial possession in the Americas.
wealthiest European
Jean Jacques Dessalines,
defeated an
slaves. Under Dessalines, black slaves decisively
been
of French troops commanded by Napoleon's
impressive contingent Leclerc. On January 1, 1804, revolutionary
brother-in-law General
the new nation. The French
chiefs met at Gonaives and proclaimed discarded in favor of the
colonial name of Saint Domingue was
aboriginal term "Haiti," meaning land of mountains.
was the
At the time of the French Revolution, Saint Domingue As early
colonial possession in the Americas.
wealthiest European --- Page 38 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
exceeded that of
of Saint Domingue
as 1742 the sugar production
the eve of the revolution the
all the British West Indies, and one-third on
of the foreign commerce
colony accounted for more than
Saint
amounted
In 1789 French trade with
Domingue
of France."
of
colonial trade totaled
to 211 million, while the whole England's the
of Saint Domingue
only 25 million. In the same year
ports
and France
number than Marseilles,
received 1,587 ships, a greater
the Saint Domingue trade." The
employed 750 ships exclusively for
coffee, cotton, indigo, mochief exports of the colony were sugar,
network of
The French built an elaborate
lasses, and dyewoods.
plantations. Wealthy
roads, irrigation systems, and magnificent rudiments of urbane French
French creoles had also established the
had been known
Français, later renamed Cap Haitien,
culture-Cap
as the Paris of the Antilles.
on the eve of the French
The population of Saint Domingue
black slaves, with whites
Revolution was made up of over 90 percent
of 519,000.
only about 40,000 out of a total population whom were
numbering also about 20,000 free mulattoes, many of
There were
Slavery in Saint Domingue had been
educated and prosperous."
whipping, mutilation, and
particularly brutal, with commonplace
marked by atrocities
torture, and the war for independence was of French troops, the
all sides. With the defeat and withdrawal
on
either emigrated, in part to South Carolina
white French colonists
by the newly independent Haiand Louisiana, or were massacred
for independence left Haiti
tians. The colonial period and struggle and antagonism, plus a perwith a confused legacy of racial pride
colonial caste system,
fear of white encroachment. The rigid
sisting
of white blood determined social status, perin which admixture
mulattoes continued to enjoy social
sisted to the extent that Haitian
and economic advantages over blacks.
society." e The free
Independent Haiti emerged as a segmented mostly mulattoes but
de couleur of colonial Saint Domingue,
values of
gens
blacks, had adopted the cultural
also including some
despite their having been subjected
dominant white French society
the whites. Wealthy gens de
to vicious racial discrimination by
and some of the details in the following
a I am indebted for many of the concepts Variants in Caribbean Race Relations: A Contridiscussion to H. Hoetink, The Two Societies (London, 1967).
bution to the Soclology of Segmented
ociety." e The free
Independent Haiti emerged as a segmented mostly mulattoes but
de couleur of colonial Saint Domingue,
values of
gens
blacks, had adopted the cultural
also including some
despite their having been subjected
dominant white French society
the whites. Wealthy gens de
to vicious racial discrimination by
and some of the details in the following
a I am indebted for many of the concepts Variants in Caribbean Race Relations: A Contridiscussion to H. Hoetink, The Two Societies (London, 1967).
bution to the Soclology of Segmented --- Page 39 ---
HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION
children to France for education and sought to
couleur sent their
emulation of white society, while
themselves by successful
prove
exhibiting the same virulent race prejudice against
simultaneously
themselves were subjected to by the whites.
black slaves that they
according to lightness of skin
White racist values ascribed status in other areas where Europepigmentation. In Saint Domingue, as
were made according
ans enslaved Africans, subtle differentiations half-castes. The physical norms
to degrees of white ancestry among of French colonial society were
of the dominant white segment Haiti by the gens de couleur, who
carried over into independent
a much larger number
an educated elite among
now constituted slaves. As in colonial Saint Domingue, where
of illiterate former
black slaves hated each other, racial
the gens de couleur and
the elite and the black peasantry of
antagonism persisted between
Haiti.
or "plural" society, with "difHaiti's emergence as a "segmented" living side by side, but separately,
ferent sections of the community
of differences
unit, " was marked by a range
within the same political
from the peasant masses." American
clearly separating the elite
The Haitian People
scholar James G. Leyburn, in his incisive study between the elite
(1941), went SO far as to describe the division the term "caste" is probWhile
and the masses as a "caste" system.
and
since the elite are not strictly endogamous
ably not warranted
in the direction of homogenization, the
Haiti has moved historically
stature testifies to the
use of the term by a scholar of Leyburn's The key to segmentasharpness of the cleavage in Haitian society. dominant white French
tion was the retention of the previously
white somatic norms
cultural orientation by the elite, including even elite included the whole
which were all the more awkward since the black. While not an
of skin pigmentation from white to
attrirange
lightness of skin pigmentation was a desired
exclusive factor,
and served
the elite, especially in marriage partners,
bute among
the elite, which were
criterion which distinguished
as a physical
the
masses, who were predominantly
largely mulatto, from
peasant
black.
of the elite from the masses was defned and
The separation
interrelated distinguishmaintained by a whole series of contingent, education, religion, and life
ing characteristics including language,
which were all the more awkward since the black. While not an
of skin pigmentation from white to
attrirange
lightness of skin pigmentation was a desired
exclusive factor,
and served
the elite, especially in marriage partners,
bute among
the elite, which were
criterion which distinguished
as a physical
the
masses, who were predominantly
largely mulatto, from
peasant
black.
of the elite from the masses was defned and
The separation
interrelated distinguishmaintained by a whole series of contingent, education, religion, and life
ing characteristics including language, --- Page 40 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
about 3 percent of the populastyle. Basically, the elite, comprising France for inspiration and
tion, looked to Europe and especially
while the masses were
disavowed all African and black associations, African and European herinvolved in a unique acculturation of Republic and Puerto Rico,
itages. Unlike the neighboring Dominican of African culture were
where language, religion, and elements of color and class, Haiti was
shared by the whole society regardless
two
the
There were
languages,
divided into two distinct segments. elite and Haitian Creole, a disofficial French used by the literate
on Norman French,
of obscure origins, based largely
tinct language
Until recently no effort was made to transcribe
spoken by the masses.
involving the French lanHaitian Creole into writing. Literacy,
of the elite,
and formal education were the special preserves functions
guage, which dominated urban, commercial, and govermental
of
political and military ascendancy
irrespective of the frequent
sophisticated EuroThe elite, emulating
black peasant strongmen.
literature, and the learned profespean society, cultivated poetry, form of manual labor. Haiti became
sions, while disdaining any
member of the elite to work
known as the land of poets. For a
subsisted by means of
with his hands was anathema. The rural masses in their life style as opposed
manual labor and were essentially
to the urbanity of the elite.
between the elite
Differences in religion epitomized the distance and maintained
and the masses. The elite were practicing Catholics
imported
which was serviced by
the Catholic church establishment, The peasant masses practiced
white French priests and teachers. vodun and voodoo. Accordthe folk religion vodoun, also known as of Haitians are Catholic and
ing to a popular anecdote, 90 vodoun. percent Vodoun is a fluid agglomera100 percent are believers in elements which has no organized priesttion of African and Catholic
liturgy. It was
permanent church buildings, or documented
hood,
despite the nominal allegiance
pervasive in the Haitian countryside Catholic church, and, because of its
that most Haitians had to the
(overtly at least)
African and black derivation, was considered has served historically
repulsive and vulgar by the elite. Vodoun
point for mass
bulwark of Haitian folk culture and as a rallying
as a
foreign domination. In colonial
political action and resistance against medium by which slaves mainSaint Domingue, vodoun was the
priesttion of African and Catholic
liturgy. It was
permanent church buildings, or documented
hood,
despite the nominal allegiance
pervasive in the Haitian countryside Catholic church, and, because of its
that most Haitians had to the
(overtly at least)
African and black derivation, was considered has served historically
repulsive and vulgar by the elite. Vodoun
point for mass
bulwark of Haitian folk culture and as a rallying
as a
foreign domination. In colonial
political action and resistance against medium by which slaves mainSaint Domingue, vodoun was the --- Page 41 ---
HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION
tained their common
the
identity and conspiratorial liaisons.
precursor of Toussaint and Dessalines whose
Macandal,
thwarted, achieved influence as a
1758 uprising was
conceived and
prophet and sorcerer who then
death at the hands organized of the a plan to poison all the whites. After his
a vodoun Papa-Loa. Vodoun French, Macandal lived on mystically as
and establishing
played a vital part in generating fervor
of independence. communications between blacks during the
Haitian scholar Jean
war
"1804 est issu du Vodou.":
Price-Mars has stated that
again during the guerrilla During the war for independence and
1919, Haitian soldiers, often war against United States Marines in
into battle wearing vodoun conspicuous for their bravery, went
off enemy bullets. The white charms which were thought to ward
marines, realizing the
French clergy and later the American
sistance of the
importance of vodoun in the
masses to foreign
impervious reto prevent ceremonies and outlaw encroachments, tried unsuccessfully
Because of cultural
vodoun.
pluralism, the
cause a tremendous crisis in Haitian American occupation would
In 1915 the elite still retained their society, especially for the elite.
pride in impressive emulation of European orientation and took
while simultaneously
refned white Western culture,
white American
scorning peasant Africanisms. Contact with
"niggers"
marines, who treated all Haitians as
according to American usage of the
"Negroes" or
categorical distinction between blacks and
terms, making no
educated and illiterate Haitians,
mulattoes or between
In reaction to the
came as quite a shock to the elite.
lectuals of the
occupation many elite, especially young intelgénération de
white French orientation and Toccupation, renounced the former
heritage embodied in the
turned instead to the black African
ethnic awareness,
culture of the masses. The new black
nomenon of
eventually culminating in the international
négritude, has been a
pheical and cultural life. Haitian continuing factor in Haitian politarticles on Haitian
president François Duvalier wrote
and later
ethnology as a young man during the
adroit emerged as a champion of black
occupation
use of vodoun as a political force has nationalism. been
Duvalier's
having bridged the long-standing
credited with
the masses. The
gap between the government and
the
segmentation of Haitian society, which
dynamic factor in SO many of these
has been
events, was based upon the
négritude, has been a
pheical and cultural life. Haitian continuing factor in Haitian politarticles on Haitian
president François Duvalier wrote
and later
ethnology as a young man during the
adroit emerged as a champion of black
occupation
use of vodoun as a political force has nationalism. been
Duvalier's
having bridged the long-standing
credited with
the masses. The
gap between the government and
the
segmentation of Haitian society, which
dynamic factor in SO many of these
has been
events, was based upon the --- Page 42 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF
racial and cultural
HAITI, 1915-1934
experience.
heritage left over from the French colonial
The great wealth of colonial Saint
stroyed during the
Domingue was largely degradually deteriorated protracted war for independence. What remained
Haitian rule.
through years of neglect under
Abandoned plantations and
independent
ruin. French roads,
sugar mills crumbled to
Large-scale
aqueducts, and irrigation systems fell into disuse.
agriculture, which had been the basis of
duction, was replaced by independent
colonial progreat plantations were broken
into subsistence farming. The
former slaves who became
up
small plots and farmed by
holdings and were
passionately attached to their individual
for wages. 8 Peasants, correspondingly unenthusiastic about working
times minute
especially in the mountains, used their somefruits which holdings to raise a wide variety of
were largely consumed within the
vegetables and
surplus remained after home
household. Whatever
the women, who, after the West consumption was taken to market by
role in a complicated
African pattern, played the leading
tion of trading
marketing system that featured punctual rotacenters, an elaborate system of
commerce, and intense
wholesale and retail
Agricultural production competition and pride in trading skills.
with
resembled West African
respect to cooperative field work for
practices, notably
vation and clearing land, but
heavy tasks such as cultialso employed. Peasants
European tools and techniques were
planted by the
continued to pick coffee beans from
French, but cultivation was limited
bushes
coffee crop was picked wild. Sugar and
and most of the
Independent Haiti was generally
indigo production ceased.
The country had no foreign
isolated from the outside world.
sion and repossession
sponsors or allies. Fear of French invanineteenth century, and dominated Haitian politics during the
French.
a series of fortresses were
early
The most spectacular of these
built to repel the
Henry
was the famous
Christophe, one of the architectural
Citadel of
bean, which has walls up to 30 feet thick wonders of the Caribcostly military preparations
and 270 feet high. All the
invasion failed to
proved unnecessary as the expected
materialize, and Haitian
gies to civil wars and periodic
rulers shifted their enerDomingo. The threat of French incursions into neighboring Santo
to rest with the signing of an
military invasion was finally laid
agreement between Haiti and Charles
early
The most spectacular of these
built to repel the
Henry
was the famous
Christophe, one of the architectural
Citadel of
bean, which has walls up to 30 feet thick wonders of the Caribcostly military preparations
and 270 feet high. All the
invasion failed to
proved unnecessary as the expected
materialize, and Haitian
gies to civil wars and periodic
rulers shifted their enerDomingo. The threat of French incursions into neighboring Santo
to rest with the signing of an
military invasion was finally laid
agreement between Haiti and Charles --- Page 43 ---
HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION
Haitian independence in
X of France in 1824. France recognized commercial concessions and
return for the granting of extensive
former
indemnity to compensate
payment of a 150-million-franc
adjusted to a more reasoncolonists. The indemnity was eventually series of loans, but indebtedness
able sum and was refunded by a
of Haitian govFrance continued to shackle the fiscal operations
to
extracted as the price of independernments. The initial indemnity,
financial crises in Haiti
ence from France, was the basis of perennial
for the next century.
Haiti found itself in difficult cirFrom the outset, independent
which emerged from its war
cumstances. Unlike the United States,
with stable political institutions, a fundamentally
for independence
immediate colonial history of quasi
sound economy, and with an
of national unity and
independence during which the requisites
Haiti enjoyed
viability had been firmly established, independent obstacles. Not
and was faced with myriad
almost no advantages
resulted in widespread
only had the Haitian war for independence but the departure of
death and near total physical devastation, administrators and skilled
French colonists left Haiti without trained
craftsmen.
the northern half of the new nation devolved upon
Leadership of
lacked
in political adminblack military strongmen who
experience the French colonists
istration, while in the south mulattoes replaced the death and expulsion
the dominant political force. In effect,
as
eliminated the entire governing class and left
of the white colonials
which had been deliberately
uneducated slave population,
a largely
and brutal servitude, to fend for itself. The
held in the most menial
urban and administrative functions.
small, educated elite dominated
included a tradition of hostility
The legacy of French colonialism
and immorality
authority, a tendency toward corruption
to political
the example of ostentatious display of
in public and private life,
for sanitation and cleanliwealth, and a notorious lack of concern decadence in white colonial
ness in colonial urban centers. Moral scandals in the Catholic church
social and political life, plus frequent inclination to revolt against the auestablishment and the colonial
of
mother country, established a heritage political
thority of the
that survived the war for independence.
instability and corruption
Haiti were cited
Evidence of similar characteristics in independent
of French colonialism
and immorality
authority, a tendency toward corruption
to political
the example of ostentatious display of
in public and private life,
for sanitation and cleanliwealth, and a notorious lack of concern decadence in white colonial
ness in colonial urban centers. Moral scandals in the Catholic church
social and political life, plus frequent inclination to revolt against the auestablishment and the colonial
of
mother country, established a heritage political
thority of the
that survived the war for independence.
instability and corruption
Haiti were cited
Evidence of similar characteristics in independent --- Page 44 ---
1915-1984
OCCUPATION OF HAITI,
UNITED STATES
racial
of Haitian
American observers as indications
served as
by European and colonial system of racial discrimination that figinferiority. The
rivalry and social stratification of political
the basis for mulatto-black
civil wars and periods
in subsequent
ured prominently
and obstacles in foreign
turmoil.
additional disadvantages
ties with
Haiti faced
diplomacy. Commercial
and international
the war for independence.
commerce
were broken during
the
planFrance and Europe which had been based on large-scale The heavy
Haitian export trade, of the colonial period, was destroyed. burden for a new
tation agriculture to France was an overwhelming and served to drain off
indebtedness
viable in any case,
faced a hostile
nation that was barely
relations Haiti
and
revenues. In international
and former slaves,
any surplus
Haitians as Negroes
For their part,
world which disparaged of the Haitian slave revolt.
and refused
feared the example
jealous of their independence
From
Haitians were extremely
the old plantation economy. Haiti. The
allow foreigners to reestablish
to own land in
to
foreigners were forbidden while the population multithe beginning, remained stagnant,
Haitian economy
and direction. While
plied.
internal politics lacked cohesiveness of the French Revolution
Haitian
and egalitarian ideology
the ideals were never
the democratic adopted by the infant nation, 1806 established legiswas officially
The Constitution of
styled the
translated into reality.
branches of a government retained
and judicial
of
was
lative, executive, Haiti. This basic form government
century
Republic of
instance in the mid-nineteenth
The
thereafter, except for one
proclaimed himself emperor. Revoluwhen President Faustin Soulouque taken from the French and inup to
slogan
rmotremntremes proclamations
Haitian
appeared on Haitian government
In reality
tion, the time of the American occupation. small elite, and by a
cluding
dominated by the numerically
the
politics were
strongmen who controlled after presidency. independsuccession of military
who ruled the country themselves in
The series of strongmen
with maintaining period sevence were usually preoccupied rivals. During the early
held
power by beating off numerous Jean Pierre Boyer (1818-43), of political
eral presidents, most notably and achieved a measure
office for prolonged periods
es proclamations
Haitian
appeared on Haitian government
In reality
tion, the time of the American occupation. small elite, and by a
cluding
dominated by the numerically
the
politics were
strongmen who controlled after presidency. independsuccession of military
who ruled the country themselves in
The series of strongmen
with maintaining period sevence were usually preoccupied rivals. During the early
held
power by beating off numerous Jean Pierre Boyer (1818-43), of political
eral presidents, most notably and achieved a measure
office for prolonged periods --- Page 45 ---
HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION
stability. Thereafter, however,
stable and fell easily to
governments were increasingly unfrom the founding of the revolutionary movements. In the period
vention in 1915,
Republic in 1806 to the American interthrown by revolution. seventeen of twenty-four presidents were overOnly two of the
fully at the ends of their terms, and eleven twenty-four retired peaceyear each.
served for less than one
Haiti figured prominently in United States
internal sectional conflicts, and in fitful
foreign policy and
American race problem. The attitude of attempts to resolve the
Haiti during Haiti's struggle for
the United States toward
years of independence
separation from France and
was heavily influenced
early
fear with which Southern
by the revulsion and
cessful slave revolt.
Americans viewed the specter of a sucPresident John Adams Despite the misgivings of Southern planters,
ture during Toussaint's gave decisive naval aid to Toussaint LouverAdams's
civil war against Haitian mulattoes in
policy was determined not
1800.
slave revolt but by the cireumstances by sympathy for the Haitian
France and efforts to maintain
of America's quasi war with
War of the Second Coalition. American neutral rights during the
in the naval
United States Marines participated
mulatto rival, engagements which ensured the defeat of Toussaint's
ments in Haitian foreshadowing affairs. a prolonged series of future involveWhile American
helped to establish the
intervention in 1800
neither
independence of Toussaint, the United
recognized this
States
establishment of peace between independence the nor supported it. The re1800 caused American relations
United States and France in
American interest in the fate of with Toussaint to cool.
sharply with Napoleon's
the Haitian slave revolt increased
dispatch of a
reconquest under General Leclerc in 30,000-man French army of
Jefferson knew, this
1801. As President Thomas
army was to proceed to
regained Saint Domingue. Napoleon's
Louisiana after it had
empire based on Spain's cession of attempt to establish a western
of course, a grave threat to the United Louisiana to France in 1800, was,
venture depended upon the
States. Success of the French
which would again become speedy the recovery of Saint Domingue,
World. Toussaint Louverture, French stronghold in the New
Southern planters, became
despite the continued hostility of
America's first line of defense. Toussaint
knew, this
1801. As President Thomas
army was to proceed to
regained Saint Domingue. Napoleon's
Louisiana after it had
empire based on Spain's cession of attempt to establish a western
of course, a grave threat to the United Louisiana to France in 1800, was,
venture depended upon the
States. Success of the French
which would again become speedy the recovery of Saint Domingue,
World. Toussaint Louverture, French stronghold in the New
Southern planters, became
despite the continued hostility of
America's first line of defense. Toussaint --- Page 46 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1984
UNITED
and died in a French prison, but Leclerc's
himself was captured
fever and defeat in battle.
eventually succumbed to yellow
with
army defeat of French troops in Saint Domingue, coupled
The
caused Napoleon to abandon his effort
French difficulties in Europe,
In 1803 France sold Louisiana
to establish a New World empire. of the Haitian slave revolt was a
to the United States. The success
sell
and thus
decision to
Louisiana,
critical factor in Napoleon's
event in American history."
figured as an important attitude the United States should assume
The question of what
the subject of a bitter political
toward newly independent Haiti was and Southern planters. New
contest between New England traders
fish and buying moEngland merchants, concerned with selling involved with colonial
lasses, were the Americans most directly
interests
and independent Haiti. New England
Saint Domingue
of Haiti and the establishment of diploargued for the recognition
planters, appalled by
matic relations and commercial ties. Southern sought to use American
the example of a successful slave revolt, The Southern view prediplomatic pressure to quarantine Haiti.
interests, until
vailed, despite continuing agitation by New England
led in the House of Representatives
the Civil War. Abolitionists, used the issue of Haitian recognition as
by John Quincy Adams,
constant pressure on the South in
one of their devices for keeping
House debates.
reacted to the agitation for recognition by
Southern spokesmen
threat to internal order in the
pointing to Haiti as a dangerous
of South Carolina stated
United States. Senator Robert Y. Hayne is
We never can
in 1825: "Our policy with regard to Hayti plain. and safety of
acknowledge her independence . - . which the discuss." peace
of our Union forbids us to even
a large portion
Thomas Hart Benton argued that the
In a similar vein, Senator
and the acceptance of black amhonoring of Haiti by recognition to be a reward for the murder
bassadors and consuls would appear slaves."" The specter of a successof masters and mistresses by black
Southern planters
ful slave revolt was raised again and again by merchants and aboliand, despite an effective alliance of Northern never a serious possidiplomatic recognition of Haiti was
tionists,
the South remained in the Union.
bility sO long as
the only major maritime power to persist
The United States was
a large portion
Thomas Hart Benton argued that the
In a similar vein, Senator
and the acceptance of black amhonoring of Haiti by recognition to be a reward for the murder
bassadors and consuls would appear slaves."" The specter of a successof masters and mistresses by black
Southern planters
ful slave revolt was raised again and again by merchants and aboliand, despite an effective alliance of Northern never a serious possidiplomatic recognition of Haiti was
tionists,
the South remained in the Union.
bility sO long as
the only major maritime power to persist
The United States was --- Page 47 ---
HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION
in ostracizing Haiti, although other
ing full-scale diplomatic
nations were slow in establishalmost a quarter century representation. before
France recognized Haiti
French colonies, and Britain established officially abolishing slavery in
relations
Emancipation Act of 1833. The United States shortly after the
with Haiti but persisted in denying
continued to trade
government retaliated by
formal recognition. The Haitian
imposing a
charge on duties payable by American discriminatory 10 percent surports.
vessels entering Haitian
American refusal to accord recognition to
American postures regarding the institution Haiti was based upon
of free blacks. The same
of slavery and the status
cans to use Haiti as a site considerations for
led to attempts by Amerifreedmen were considered
colonization of former slaves. Since
cause of white racial
unassimilable in the United States beJefferson, argued that prejudices, they should some Americans, notably Thomas
American Colonization
be encouraged to emigrate. The
effort in this direction Society, founded in 1817, made a significant
by
free
was a logical alternative to dispatching Africa
blacks to Liberia. Haiti
cially since the Haitian
as a site for colonization, espeto encourage the
government at various times actively sought
1820s, 13,000 black immigration of American freedmen. During the
ment failed as the Americans emigrated to Haiti, but the experitive, exclusive elite emigrants and
discovered that Haiti, with its exploixenophobic
tages over the United States.
peasantry, offered few advanthe United States, and
Many of the emigrants returned to
A second major
plans for further colonization were
effort at colonization in
dropped.
the 1860s by the Lincoln
Haiti was undertaken in
time advocate of colonization, administration. President Lincoln, a longUnited States
agreed to a contract
the
government to pay $50 per
to committing
concessionaire for settling up to 50,000
person an American
dred freedmen sailed from Fortress freedmen in Haiti. Five hunIle à Vache off the southern
Monroe in 1863 and settled on
into a fiasco because of
coast of Haiti, but the venture turned
to exploit the emigrants mismanagement by the
and unscrupulous attempts
agent sent by the Lincoln administration American concessionaire. A special
maltreatment discovered
to investigate rumors of
shelter, but an ample grossly inadequate provisions for food and
supply of stocks, leg chains, and handcuffs.
for settling up to 50,000
person an American
dred freedmen sailed from Fortress freedmen in Haiti. Five hunIle à Vache off the southern
Monroe in 1863 and settled on
into a fiasco because of
coast of Haiti, but the venture turned
to exploit the emigrants mismanagement by the
and unscrupulous attempts
agent sent by the Lincoln administration American concessionaire. A special
maltreatment discovered
to investigate rumors of
shelter, but an ample grossly inadequate provisions for food and
supply of stocks, leg chains, and handcuffs. --- Page 48 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
Those freedmen who survived
Army transport and returned were rescued by a United States
debacle, the Haitian
to America. After the Ile à Vache
schemes, and American government lost interest in colonization
of blacks.
policy shifted to retention and assimilation
With hostile Southern planters absent
United States finally granted
by virtue of secession, the
with Liberia, in 1862. The North diplomatic recognition to Haiti, along
tage during the Civil War,
proceeded to use Haiti to advanHaitien and procuring
establishing a coaling station at Cap
Haiti's technical
special privileges in Haitian ports. Despite
Haitian
neutrality, Union warships were
ports as bases for operations
allowed to use
and blockade runners.
against Confederate raiders
While racism had been the most
Haitian policy, the strategic
important factor in United States
Haiti, became manifestly importance of the West Indies, and of
given the attempts by apparent during the Civil War, especially
temporary American France, Britain, and Spain to capitalize on
Dominican Republic. weakness by intervening in Mexico and the
ested in
Actually, the United States had been
obtaining a West Indian naval base as
interyears following the Civil War a number
early as 1849. In the
secure a base at Samana Bay in the
of attempts were made to
President Andrew Johnson
Dominican Republic. In 1868
and the Dominican
proposed the annexation of both Haiti
Ulysses Grant
Republic, and the following year
signed an agreement
President
the Dominican Republic, but
calling for the annexation of
Senate. While American efforts Grant's treaty was rejected by the
in the Iate 1860s had focused to procure a Caribbean naval base
harbor at Mole-Saint-Nicolas mainly on Samana Bay, the Haitian
1869 Grant ordered a naval also came up for consideration. In
site for an American
officer to survey the Môle as a possible
base, and the resulting report was
Mole-Saint-Nicolas had a deep and
favorable.
the eighteenth century had been known well-protected harbor, and in
Caribbean. Despite its
as the Gibraltar of the
administrations declined many advantages, both Johnson and Grant
to cede the Môle to the repeated United offers by Haitian revolutionaries
Haiti's civil wars of 1866-69.
States in return for assistance in
Instead, American policy was directed
also came up for consideration. In
site for an American
officer to survey the Môle as a possible
base, and the resulting report was
Mole-Saint-Nicolas had a deep and
favorable.
the eighteenth century had been known well-protected harbor, and in
Caribbean. Despite its
as the Gibraltar of the
administrations declined many advantages, both Johnson and Grant
to cede the Môle to the repeated United offers by Haitian revolutionaries
Haiti's civil wars of 1866-69.
States in return for assistance in
Instead, American policy was directed --- Page 49 ---
HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION
toward keeping clear of Haiti's
simultaneously
myriad internal problems while
making sure that neither
cured the Môle.
Britain nor France proIn the late 1880s, after a
a Haitian base was revived twenty-year by
lapse, American interest in
sea power. Secretary of State proponents of American "big navy"
of commercial
James G. Blaine, a strong advocate
expansion and the
chant marine, made a
development of an American merSaint-Nicolas
vigorous attempt to obtain lease
as a naval base, During the
of Môleengaged in a number of intrigues with
years 1889-91, Blaine
maintained constant
Haitian revolutionaries and
the Môle to the United pressure on the Haitian government to cede
which at one point
States. Despite Blaine's elaborate plans,
holding
contemplated a display of American naval
target practice in Port-au-Prince
forces
Cabinet deliberated, the Haitian
Bay while the Haitian
bow to American threats. Blaine failed government adamantly refused to
was unwilling to use force and
to take the Môle because he
intrigues in Haiti were
because his unsavory diplomatic
hampered by the
of
Douglass as American minister to Haiti.
presence
Frederick
With increasing emphasis on American naval
1890s and the subsequent building of the
expansion in the
States retained a strong interest in
Panama Canal, the United
strategic importance of Haiti. In Mole-Saint-Nicolas 1897
and in the
Mahan, mastermind of American
Captain Alfred Thayer
and pointed to the strategic
sea power, surveyed the Caribbean
but selected Guantânamo importance of the Windward Passage,
most desirable site for a Bay, Cuba, rather than the Môle, as the
establish
navy base. While the
a resident military
United States did not
can
presence in Haiti prior to
warships were active in Haitian waters
1915, Amerinineteenth and early twentieth
throughout the late
ports to protect American lives centuries. Navy ships visited Haitian
1869, 1876, 1888, 1889, 1892, and property" in 1857, 1859, 1868,
1908, 1909, 1911, 1912, and 1913.12 1902, 1903, 1904, 1905, 1906, 1907,
diplomatic relations, the American Despite the establishment of
cordial. In 1888 Assistant
attitude toward Haiti was not
to Haiti as "a public
Secretary of State Alvey A. Adee referred
over Haiti's
nuisance at our doors." 18 Disdain and
strategic position in the Caribbean were the main concern
fea-
1859, 1868,
1908, 1909, 1911, 1912, and 1913.12 1902, 1903, 1904, 1905, 1906, 1907,
diplomatic relations, the American Despite the establishment of
cordial. In 1888 Assistant
attitude toward Haiti was not
to Haiti as "a public
Secretary of State Alvey A. Adee referred
over Haiti's
nuisance at our doors." 18 Disdain and
strategic position in the Caribbean were the main concern
fea- --- Page 50 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
tures of United States policy in the late nineteenth
eth centuries. These tendencies
and early twentiBoth principal
culminated in the 1915 intervention.
spheres of United States
Caribbean and the
foreign expansion, the
The intense
Pacific, were hotly contested by other
rivalry characteristic of modern
powers.
especially to the Pacific and the
imperialism applied
areas, were among the last places Caribbean, which, as marginal
powers in the late nineteenth
open to incursions by foreign
with European
century. The United States clashed
rivals, especially
United States as a late entry in the Germany, which paralleled the
and prestige, in Samoa in 1889 and scramble for imperial power
the several decades
in the Caribbean throughout
for domination involved preceding World War I. In Haiti the contest
The French
the United States, France, and
had retained a strong influence in Haiti. Germany.
Franco-Haitian agreement, whereby France
The 1824
dependence in return for payment of
recognized Haitian inFrance in a dominant
a large indemnity, placed
The 1824
position in Haitian commerce and
indemnity was refunded by French
finance.
and 1910, with Haiti
loans in 1875, 1896,
of this burdensome maintaining a remarkable record of payment
intervention in 1915. debt, never defaulting until after the American
Haiti's diligence in
despite a weak economy, frequent
meeting debt payments
numerous instances of default
revolutions, and the example of
may be attributed
by other Latin-American
Haiti's
to its continuing fear of foreign
countries
foreign debt, held mainly by French
intervention.
to about $21.5 million in 1915,4
bondholders, amounted
The 1824 Franco-Haitian
commercial
agreement had provided for
privileges in addition to the
generous
merchants enjoyed a 50 percent
indemnification. French
duties. French commercial
preferential reduction in Haitian
by the United States, privileges in Haiti were deeply resented
favored-nation
which was trying to establish the mostica. The
principle as the basis of foreign trade in
special French position in
Latin Ameruntil the various privileges
Haitian commerce continued
occupation. Under the 1907 were rescinded during the American
Haiti granted France
Franco-Haitian commercial convention
return only most-favored-nation special tariff preferences, while receiving in
treatment. 15 French advantages in
emnification. French
duties. French commercial
preferential reduction in Haitian
by the United States, privileges in Haiti were deeply resented
favored-nation
which was trying to establish the mostica. The
principle as the basis of foreign trade in
special French position in
Latin Ameruntil the various privileges
Haitian commerce continued
occupation. Under the 1907 were rescinded during the American
Haiti granted France
Franco-Haitian commercial convention
return only most-favored-nation special tariff preferences, while receiving in
treatment. 15 French advantages in --- Page 51 ---
HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION
and commerce were augmented by French ownerHaitian finance
chartered in 1880, which
ship and control of the Banque Nationale, bank and also served as
commercial
became the country's leading
the government treasury.
France as a market for the leadHaiti was also dependent upon coffee. Haitian coffee, which had a
ing Haitian export commodity,
was especially appreciated
distinct aroma, strength, and smoothness,
French over
France. The Haitians, for their part, preferred
in
preceding the American
American tobacco. In the years immediately
went to France,
intervention roughly half of Haiti's total exports
of
accounted for only about 10 percent
while French products
1911 to 1913 Haitian exports to France
Haitian imports. In the years
as
$2.2 million
amounted to $21 million for the three years, against the French
from France." Haiti's heavy dependence on
of imports
amount of French sales
market and the relatively inconsequential advantage in procuring
in Haiti gave France a strong bargaining
preferential commercial privileges.
in Haiti, French culcivilization prevailed
Insofar as European
French was the official language
tural influence was predominant.
and precision by the elite.
of the country and was used with care
which
mark of education and status
separated
Correct French was a
of the population. Haitian Creole,
the user from the vast majority
French vocabuspoken by the masses, was based largely on Norman fashions and sent their
lary and syntax. The elite followed French
to the time
children to France for education. Haitian literature, up French writers
followed styles set by
of the American intervention, Haitian Catholic church, after a conThe
of preceding generations. in the 1860s, was staffed by French priests
cordat with the Papacy
and missionaries. Up to the time of
who also served as educators
Haitians prided themselves on
the American occupation, educated African associations.
their French culture and repudiated inclinations toward official pomp,
The Haitian elite shared French of the elite took an active interconversation, and politics. Members
office irrespective of their
est in politics and aspired to high political institutions were modeled
vocational backgrounds. Haitian political looked to the French Revolution
after those of France, and Haitians
Haitian stated
the
of Haitian liberty. One prominent
as
birthplace mother country of the black race, because
that France was the
who also served as educators
Haitians prided themselves on
the American occupation, educated African associations.
their French culture and repudiated inclinations toward official pomp,
The Haitian elite shared French of the elite took an active interconversation, and politics. Members
office irrespective of their
est in politics and aspired to high political institutions were modeled
vocational backgrounds. Haitian political looked to the French Revolution
after those of France, and Haitians
Haitian stated
the
of Haitian liberty. One prominent
as
birthplace mother country of the black race, because
that France was the --- Page 52 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
the black race was ever a citizen, he was
the first time that a man of
of our race was ever an officer,
a French citizen; the first time that a man birthright, where is it found?
he was a French officer. And our national of the Rights of Man? 17
Was it not in France, in the Declaration
remained sensitive to any threat of French encroachWhile Haiti
France held a special place of affecment on Haitian independence,
and suppressed their own
tion for the Haitian elite, which ignored of
in colonial Saint
identification with the horrors slavery
historical
the elite sought to achieve international respect
Domingue. Indeed,
emulating French
for Haiti and the Negroid race by successfully
culture.
established by virtue of strong historical
The French were firmly
became increasingly importies, but after 1900 German merchants Germany, as a nascent and
tant in Haitian internal commerce.
the United States as
aggressive imperial power, was considered by
come to
its chief rival in the Caribbean. German entrepreneurs and wholesale merthemselves as traders
Haiti and established
Haitian women in order to circumchants. The Germans married
and
against alien landownership
vent the Haitian prohibition
and several
founded resident German colonies in Port-au-Prince resident FrenchHaitian cities. As was the case with the few
other
socially with the Haitian elite.
men, the Germans intermingled
the Germans a strong
This racial and cultural fraternization gave
competition. HaiAmerican commercial
advantage over potential
and French society, while
received into German
tians were generally
painful when Haitians visited
contacts with Americans, especially racial prejudice and Jim Crow
the United States, were blighted by
social barriers.
created a progeny of GermanoBy intermarrying the Germans tie with the fatherland. In 1912
Haitians that ensured a continuing funds from the Imperial Foreign
a German school, supported by
According to a speech
Office, was established in Port-au-Prince.
the intent was
the German minister at the school opening,
made by
descendants of Germans established in Haiti,"
to "Germanize the
the
18 Children of Germanoand to inculcate attachment to emperor. for their education. By
Haitian parents were sent back to Germany
, were blighted by
social barriers.
created a progeny of GermanoBy intermarrying the Germans tie with the fatherland. In 1912
Haitians that ensured a continuing funds from the Imperial Foreign
a German school, supported by
According to a speech
Office, was established in Port-au-Prince.
the intent was
the German minister at the school opening,
made by
descendants of Germans established in Haiti,"
to "Germanize the
the
18 Children of Germanoand to inculcate attachment to emperor. for their education. By
Haitian parents were sent back to Germany --- Page 53 ---
HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION
and Germano-Haitians in Haiti, and
1915 there were 210 Germans
residences." 19
German business houses and private
many
mainly in wholesale merchandisThe Germans in Haiti engaged and
utilities. In 1914 a
ing, but branched out into finance
Germans public controlled 80 perofficer estimated that
State Department
business in Haiti. 20 Germans also controlled
cent of the commercial
and Cap Haitien, along with
the public utilities in Port-au-Prince
Line
The Hamburg-American
the only wharf at Port-au-Prince. Haiti. About two-thirds of coffee
dominated shipping to and from
exports were carried away in German ships."
Haiti's
German merchants became active in financing
After 1908
revolutions," Loans were apparently made
increasingly frequent
and from Berlin." Germans would
both from local German resources
candidates forming armies
float loans at high prices to presidential
after each successful
in the north, and then be repaid handsomely made loans, again at high
revolutionary campaign. Germans also
which found
rates of interest, to incumbent Haitian governments Involvement in financing
themselves in desperate financial straits."
motivated by the
factions in Haiti was apparently
various political
individual German merchants, rather
lucrative profits obtainable to
Foreign Office. In any case,
than by machinations of the Imperial and obvious German comof revolutions
the growing frequency
of the State Department and
plicity increased the apprehensions
intervention, which was
opened the way for American military
anathema to German interests.
at the same
commercial interest in Haiti quickened
American
up their activities. Few
time that the Germans were stepping for the fascination of some
Americans lived in Haiti and, except technical expertise, and comHaitians with American efficiency,
American exmercial initiative, cultural contacts were negligible. while Haitian exports to
ports to Haiti in 1890 totaled $5.3 million, million. Although Amerithe United States amounted to only $2.4 one-third of Haiti's total
accounted for more than
can products constituted only %o of 1 percent of total American
imports, they
and furthered by
exports." American trade was actively sponsored 1865 and 1890, had negowhich, between
the State Department,
trading conditions for Amertiated the elimination of discriminatory
, and comHaitians with American efficiency,
American exmercial initiative, cultural contacts were negligible. while Haitian exports to
ports to Haiti in 1890 totaled $5.3 million, million. Although Amerithe United States amounted to only $2.4 one-third of Haiti's total
accounted for more than
can products constituted only %o of 1 percent of total American
imports, they
and furthered by
exports." American trade was actively sponsored 1865 and 1890, had negowhich, between
the State Department,
trading conditions for Amertiated the elimination of discriminatory --- Page 54 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
interest and attainment of more
ican commerce. The increasing
increase American
favorable trading conditions did not materially
was
1890 the American advantage based on proximity
trade and by
enterprising Germans. The State
being challenged effectively by
and also seeking
Department, responding to the new competition merchant shipping in
for the decline of American
to compensate
to further American interests by obthe Haitian trade, attempted
for American products.
taining exclusive competitive advantages to lower its duties on American
The Haitian government refused
retaliatory tariffs
imports, and the United States, in 1892, imposed States fell drastiHaitian imports to the United
on Haitian goods.
to create an exclusive market for American
cally, but the attempt
into granting preferential conproducts by pressuring the Haitians
cessions failed.
undertaken by the McKinley
A more successful approach was William F. Powell as minister to
administration, which appointed
manufacturers to adapt their
Haiti. Powell encouraged American and grant more liberal credit terms.
products to the Haitian market consisted of codfish and other staple
American imports, which had
through salesmanship to
foodstuffs, were expanded and diversified The value of American
include a variety of manufactured goods. of the Haitian economy, but
imports depended upon fluctuations cornered about 60 percent of the
by 1910 the United States had
last
before the disruption
Haitian import market. In 1913, the
year
amounted
commerce by World War I, American imports
of Haitian
million total imports, while Haitian exto $5.9 million out of $8.1
million out of $11.3 million total
ports to the United States were $1
exports." 26
investments in Haiti were in conThe first significant American concession resulted in an Americessions to build railroads. An 1876 before it got beyond the city
effort that floundered
can construction
The concession was eventually taken over
limits of Port-au-Prince. used it to extort half a million dollars
by German interests, who
A second effort by Amerifrom the Haitian government in 1901."7 of the 40-mile Plaine du
resulted in the construction
cans finally
Railroad in 1904. The P.C.S. Railroad was subCul-de-Sac (P.C.S.)
interests.
sequently taken over by German
another railroad concesIn 1904 the Haitian government granted
got beyond the city
effort that floundered
can construction
The concession was eventually taken over
limits of Port-au-Prince. used it to extort half a million dollars
by German interests, who
A second effort by Amerifrom the Haitian government in 1901."7 of the 40-mile Plaine du
resulted in the construction
cans finally
Railroad in 1904. The P.C.S. Railroad was subCul-de-Sac (P.C.S.)
interests.
sequently taken over by German
another railroad concesIn 1904 the Haitian government granted --- Page 55 ---
HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION
sion to a Haitian national who
Americans for $50 cash and
promptly sold his rights to two
suaded the Haitian
$62,500 in stock. 28 The Americans
clude the
government to extend their concession to per- indevelopment of a comprehensive network
ports with the interior, but
linking major
it was taken over by American nothing came of the new project until
Through bribery that was rumored entrepreneur James P. McDonald.
string of fake pearls to the
to have included the gift of a
Simon, McDonald
daughter of Haitian President Antoine
obtained a renewal and
concession, Although McDonald himself expansion of the earlier
developing fig-banana plantations and was chiefly interested in
sults, his railroad concession became never achieved any real rework and
the basis of future construction
expensive claims against the Haitian
American investors. The concession, dated
government by
the Haitian government to
April, 1910, called for
company to meet its
guarantee, upon failure of the railroad
amortization
expenses, 6 percent interest and
on National Railway of Haiti
1 percent
be issued at the rate of up to $33,000
bonds, which were to
The concession also
per mile of track constructed."
side of the track on which granted McDonald 12 miles of land on either
given an export
to grow fig bananas, for which he was
land and the Haitian monopoly, but McDonald failed to develop any
tract dealing with fig government foreclosed that part of the conbananas, thus
most promising revenue possibilities. 80 depriving the railroad of its
The frivolous character of the entire
when McDonald's railroad
venture changed sharply
a formidable New York concession was taken over in 1911 by
Company with
syndicate headed by W. R. Grace and
Bank and
participation by two Wall Street firms,
Speyer and Company.
National City
had been involved in Haitian
Speyer and National City Bank
gestion of a large German railroads since 1909, when, at the sugtwo firms bought $800,000 mercantile house in Port-au-Prince, the
W. R. Grace and
par value of P.C.S. Railroad bonds.
way bonds in France Company and sold $870,000 of the new National Railwriting obligation,
advanced $2 million as part of its underBank. 82 The list of borrowing $500,000 of this from National
stockholders in the
City
W. R. Grace and
National Railway included
Company, National City
pany, the Ethelberga Syndicate of
Bank, Speyer and ComLondon, Vice-President Samuel
the sugtwo firms bought $800,000 mercantile house in Port-au-Prince, the
W. R. Grace and
par value of P.C.S. Railroad bonds.
way bonds in France Company and sold $870,000 of the new National Railwriting obligation,
advanced $2 million as part of its underBank. 82 The list of borrowing $500,000 of this from National
stockholders in the
City
W. R. Grace and
National Railway included
Company, National City
pany, the Ethelberga Syndicate of
Bank, Speyer and ComLondon, Vice-President Samuel --- Page 56 ---
1915-1934
OCCUPATION OF HAITI,
UNITED STATES
presi38
Bank, and Frank A. Vanderlip,
McRoberts of National Bank." City
in 1911
dent of National City the new National Railway began
Construction work on
until the Haitian government
with interruptions,
in 1914. The govand continued,
to the railroad
railroad
refused to make further payments had contracted for a complete
ernment claimed that it
the northern city of Cap Haitien,
Port-au-Prince with
three disconnected sections
connecting
had built only
Saint Marc and
while the company A gap of 40 miles between
between
totaling 108 miles.
of 30 miles over the mountains
and
Gonaives and another gap made through traffic imposible stock.
Haitien and Ennery
three
sets of rolling
Cap
of
separate
that it
necessitated the maintenance National City Bank, claimed revoThe railroad, represented by fulfilling the contract by frequent mile conhad been prevented from claimed costs of the full $33,000 per
level
lutions. The railroad
actually completed ran through
although the sections
those that would have gone
structed, and the sections left out were
done and the main
country
Moreover, the work was badly miles out of town in a
over mountains.
was located two
this railroad, which
station at Port-au-Prince the government for
were
swamp." Claims against
the American occupation,
paid in full during The most important immewere eventually source of grief to Haiti.
was to draw powerful
a continuing of the National Railway venture in Haitian internal
diate effect
interests into participation
American banking
economic penetrafinances.
sphere of American
has argued
An even more important Haitian scholar Leslie F. Manigat
in
tion was in banking. United States achieved preponderance
convincingly that the
German interests in the 1910 struggle
French and
the disHaiti by defeating
Nationale." 35 In 1905, following
for control of the Banque the Haitian government had suspended
of extensive frauds,
by the French-owned
covery
treasury service operated Company and National
the government
1909, Speyer and
to secure
Banque: In November,
to Haiti in an attempt
City Bank sent a representative but the American firms were outmaneuvered ambassador in
control of the Banque, represented by the German which were trying
by German interests, minister in Port-au-Prince,
Paris and the German
French and
the disHaiti by defeating
Nationale." 35 In 1905, following
for control of the Banque the Haitian government had suspended
of extensive frauds,
by the French-owned
covery
treasury service operated Company and National
the government
1909, Speyer and
to secure
Banque: In November,
to Haiti in an attempt
City Bank sent a representative but the American firms were outmaneuvered ambassador in
control of the Banque, represented by the German which were trying
by German interests, minister in Port-au-Prince,
Paris and the German --- Page 57 ---
HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION
to reorganize the Banque and float
ernment. 86 The German
a new loan to the Haitian govinterests,
rectors of the existing
cooperating with the French dition of the Banque and Banque, procured a contract for reorganizabonds
flotation of a 65 million
were taken by the Franco-German
franc loan. The
while National City Bank later claimed interests at 72.3 percent,
cent but had been turned down
that it had offered 80 perThe contract for the
because of failure to include graft. 87
the Banque would have reorganized sole
Banque Nationale provided that
the government
right of note issue and would serve as
0.5
treasury, charging 1 percent on
percent on money disbursed. The
money received and
francs of the loan as a reserve fund Banque also retained 10 million
The State Department,
to redeem paper currency. 88
ploitation of the Haitian objecting to "plainly unconscionable" excan participation, refused government and to the absence of AmeriState Department
to sanction the contract. 39 In response to
objections, the
to 50 percent American
Franco-German interests agreed
including National
participation and control in the new
City Bank and Speyer and
Banque,
percent each. Amendments were made
Company with 10
some of the provisions
in the contract to remove
the clause
objected to by the State Department,
providing for Banque collection of
notably
ties. In an agreement signed in
Haitian customs duassured the State
January, 1911, the American bankers
percent control of Department the
that they would retain at least 50
Haiti the benefits of American Banque and would also attempt to bring to
of this agreement,
enterprise and capital. On the basis
Secretary of State Philander
drop the department's objections to the
Knox consented to
his reservations about the fairness
contract but did not waive
years the State Department
of the contract terms. In future
back the American interests in would, of course, be called upon to
ernment, even
their conflicts with the Haitian
though Article XXIII of the 1910 contract
govdiplomatic intervention.
prohibited
The initiative for procuring American
contract was exercised concurrently
participation in the 1910
the American
by the State
bankers, and by the
Department, by
hesitated to close a deal without State Franco-German interests which
American bankers, who had
Department approval. The
sought to gain control of the Banque
of the contract terms. In future
back the American interests in would, of course, be called upon to
ernment, even
their conflicts with the Haitian
though Article XXIII of the 1910 contract
govdiplomatic intervention.
prohibited
The initiative for procuring American
contract was exercised concurrently
participation in the 1910
the American
by the State
bankers, and by the
Department, by
hesitated to close a deal without State Franco-German interests which
American bankers, who had
Department approval. The
sought to gain control of the Banque --- Page 58 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
interests.
expressed primary concern over their railroad wrote SecreNationale,
president of National City Bank,
Frank A. Vanderlip,
tary Knox:
us to take this participation [in the 1910 Banque
A fact that determined
profits was the desire to have
contract] more largely than any prospective
on with the building of
the loan matters out of the way, SO we could go in that direction being
the National Railroad of Haiti, our negotiations in regard to the loan and
interfered with by the pending negotiations
the establishment of the bank.
syndicate
investments in a Haitian mining
Vanderlip had personal
The State Department demanded
as well as in Haitian railroads."
Nationale as a means of preAmerican participation in the Banque control but persisted in dilatory
venting exclusive Franco-German had been ensured in hopes of
tactics after American participation favor." When challenged by
ameliorating the contract in Haiti's
denied having
the American bankers vigorously
the department,
of bribes to Haitian
of the extensive payments
had any knowledge
took
in early 1911 after the contract
government officials that
place French interests had handled all
had been closed, claiming that
involved compromises by
negotiations. 48 In sum, the 1910 contract and the Franco-German
the American bankers,
the department,
backed by the full commitment
interests, but American interests, in control of the Banque. After
of the State Department, emerged Frenchmen in the management
1911 American personnel replaced
and direction of the Banque.
the Haitian government
Because of the high flotation discount, the 65 million franc loan. Of
realized only 47 million francs from Nationale retained 10 million
the 47 million francs, the Banque of paper currency to be acfrancs as cash reserve for redemption future date. The contract made
complished at some undetermined
receipts and also
the Banque sole depository for all government of Haiti's external debt
granted the Banque control over the service
the Banque held
French bondholders. According to the contract,
to
until the end of each fiscal year, paid the extergovernment receipts
the
funds to the govnal debt, and then turned over
remaining advances to the governernment. Provisions for payment of monthly
47 million francs, the Banque of paper currency to be acfrancs as cash reserve for redemption future date. The contract made
complished at some undetermined
receipts and also
the Banque sole depository for all government of Haiti's external debt
granted the Banque control over the service
the Banque held
French bondholders. According to the contract,
to
until the end of each fiscal year, paid the extergovernment receipts
the
funds to the govnal debt, and then turned over
remaining advances to the governernment. Provisions for payment of monthly --- Page 59 ---
HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION
for by separate annual conventions
ment by the Banque provided element of control over the government's
gave the Banque an added
made at the discretion of the
purse strings; the monthly advances,
operating expenses.
Banque, were necessary to meet government German, and French inMuch of the rivalry between American,
and expectations of
terests was based on political considerations
of specdevelopment, rather than on prospects
future economic
Haiti was a poor country, and was insigtacular short-term profits.
Latin-American investment market.
nificant in terms of the overall
there had been a boom in forDuring the decade preceding 1914 which, unlike previous booms
eign investments in Latin America,
German, and United States
in 1820 and 1860, had included French, nominal value of foreign investcapital as well as British. The total about $8.5 billion, or about
ments in Latin America in 1914 was
investments. The Latinone-fifth of worldwide long-term foreign down as follows: Britain
American total of $8.5 billion was broken France $1.2 billion; Ger-
$3.7 billion; United States $1.7 billion;
investments in
$.9 billion; and others $1.0 billion." Foreign
French
many
consisted mainly of the $21.5 million owed to
Haiti in 1915
of the 1875, 1896, and 1910 loans. German
bondholders as a result
of little consequence. United
and British direct investments were amounted to about $4 million
States investments in Haiti in 1913
million in Cuba. The
$800 million in Mexico and $220
as against
constituted only 0.32 percent of total
$4 million invested in Haiti
United States investments in Latin America." --- Page 60 ---
Decision to
The
Intervene
in Haiti became more frequent during
Revolutions and insurrections
1910 followed well-established
the late nineteenth century and by
would form a caco e
A candidate for the office of president
declare
patterns.
of Haiti, capture the port of Cap Haitien,
army in the north
and march
rival of the incumbent president,
himself a legitimate
Port-au-Prince,
Port-au-Prince. As the caco army approached
on
often would
along, the incumbent president
plundering as it moved
funds. The caco army
leave the country with part of the treasury the legislature, and
would then capture Port-au-Prince, surround candidate by the Haitian
oversee the election of the insurgent
served a complete
Senate. From 1888 to 1915 no Haitian president death while in office;
seven-year term and only one died a natural
seven of them
the other ten were either killed or overthrown, for successful
chaotic
after 1911. The main prize
during the
period
which accounted
revolutionaries was control of the customhouses,
for all government revenues.
government administraWith increasingly frequent revolutions, blatant. Payments on Haiti's
tion deteriorated and graft became million in 1915, continued
foreign debt, which amounted to $21.5 tremendous strain on Haito be made, but the payments placed a
recruited
consisted of part-time military adventurers and conscripts
A "caco" organized army by local military strongmen.
and loosely
ten were either killed or overthrown, for successful
chaotic
after 1911. The main prize
during the
period
which accounted
revolutionaries was control of the customhouses,
for all government revenues.
government administraWith increasingly frequent revolutions, blatant. Payments on Haiti's
tion deteriorated and graft became million in 1915, continued
foreign debt, which amounted to $21.5 tremendous strain on Haito be made, but the payments placed a
recruited
consisted of part-time military adventurers and conscripts
A "caco" organized army by local military strongmen.
and loosely --- Page 61 ---
THE DECISION TO INTERVENE
finances. On the eve of the American intervention,
tian government
were pledged to debt service."'
80 percent of government revenues
to borrow at exorbiPeriodic financial crises forced the government
cash return
realizing as little as 59, 56, and 47 percent
tant rates,
pledged to redeem at
for internal bonds which the government
100 percent plus interest.? character of Haitian finances and the
Despite the precarious continued to meet external debt obligafrequent revolutions, Haiti
intervention and the coincidental
tions up to the time of American
result of World War I.
loss of Haiti's coffee market in France as a
compared
Indeed, Haiti's record of debt payment was exemplary 1915 Ecuador was
of other Latin-American countries: in
to that
Mexico was $15 million in arrears, and Hon-
$2 million in arrears,
million in arrears." Haiti's desperate
duras was more than $100
did not, however, provide
efforts to meet foreign debt obligations States intervention. The
against United
the hoped-for guarantee finances and politics was of itself cause for
degeneration of Haitian
impoverished Haitian
concern to the State Department, since weak,
Eurosusceptible to manipulation by
governments were considered
of European subversion,
pean financial interests. This possibility of actual default, was the factor that
rather than the nominal hazard
in the Caribbean
caused anxiety in Washington. American policy directed toward
during the early twentieth century was specifically developing in Haiti.
exactly the type of situation that was
averting
and financial deterioration in Haiti,
Coinciding with the political involvement in the Caribbean area
United States interest and
of the Panama Canal.
increased dramatically with the construction in Washington comFrom 1900 onward, successive administrations political stability
mitted the United States to a policy of maintaining encroachment
in the Caribbean as a means of preventing foreign political, and
threaten the developing American military,
that might
in the area. In 1905 Secretary of State Elihu
economic hegemony inevitable effect of our building the Canal must
Root wrote: "The
premises. In the nature
be to require us to police the surrounding
to keep order which
of things, trade and control, and the obligation
go with them, must come our way." declared the United States inThe Monroe Doctrine, which had colonization of independent
tention to prohibit further European
States to a policy of maintaining encroachment
in the Caribbean as a means of preventing foreign political, and
threaten the developing American military,
that might
in the area. In 1905 Secretary of State Elihu
economic hegemony inevitable effect of our building the Canal must
Root wrote: "The
premises. In the nature
be to require us to police the surrounding
to keep order which
of things, trade and control, and the obligation
go with them, must come our way." declared the United States inThe Monroe Doctrine, which had colonization of independent
tention to prohibit further European --- Page 62 ---
OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED STATES
the new
adequate to cover
Latin-American countries, was no Even longer limited, short-term intervenimportance of the area.
of Latin-American countries
strategic
powers in the affairs
tion by European be tolerated.
Latin America, as
would no longer such foreign intervention in
of
The impetus for
in 1902-3, was generally a syndrome would
in the case of Venezuela whereby foreign Anancial interests Latineconomic exploitation rates to an unstable and often corrupt would evenfoat loans at exorbitant That Latin-American country financial interAmerican government. loan
and the foreign
in
tually default on its
payments, for diplomatic assistance in
would apply to their governments and intervention succeeded
ests
If diplomatic pressure
investors would enjoy
collecting.
of the debt, the foreign there was actually
forcing a settlement return on their loans where
high-risk rates of
thanks to their govermments intervention." inno risk involved at all,
to permit foreign military
United States, while refusing
continued to recogThe
of the Panama Canal,
tervention in the vicinity
financial claims on Latin-American that the
nize the legitimacy of Roosevelt European Corollary of 1904 stated by ascountries. Thus the
against European intervention
States would ensure
countries which
United
burden of policing Latin-American debts. President
suming the
their international
in his
delinquent in honoring
new Caribbean policy
were
Roosevelt defined America's the Dominican Republic,
Theodore
Cuba, Vénezuela, and with
in 1907.
dealings with
American customs receivership
where he established an
financial investments by Ameriof guaranteeing foreign for
interventions.
This policy action served as a precedent American subsequent concern for order
can police
manifested itself in
countries, since
The new policy the internal affairs of Caribbean and responsiand stability in
of the efficiency
transtable governments were capable off of debts, while unstable, unnecessary for the paying
in paying debts,
bility
tended to be irresponsible and corrupt enough
sient governments American diplomatic pressures,
responsive to exorbitant loans with foreign investors.
counto contract new, Stick policy of intimidating Latin-American was given new diRoosevel's Big
intervention
with the threat of American
of State Philander
tries
President Taft. Taft and Secretary of European claims
mensions by
to remove the sources
Chase Knox, attempted
internal affairs of Caribbean and responsiand stability in
of the efficiency
transtable governments were capable off of debts, while unstable, unnecessary for the paying
in paying debts,
bility
tended to be irresponsible and corrupt enough
sient governments American diplomatic pressures,
responsive to exorbitant loans with foreign investors.
counto contract new, Stick policy of intimidating Latin-American was given new diRoosevel's Big
intervention
with the threat of American
of State Philander
tries
President Taft. Taft and Secretary of European claims
mensions by
to remove the sources
Chase Knox, attempted --- Page 63 ---
THE DECISION TO INTERVENE
financial interests to replace their Euroby encouraging American
of various Caribbean countries.
counterparts as the creditors
pean
that this policy would yield the double advantage
It was hoped
influence while simultaneously opening new
of curtailing European
and commerce. In 1909 Secretary
markets for American capital
with Honduras that would
Knox attempted to conclude a treaty
of the Honduran
have called for the consolidation and refunding of an American cusAmerican bankers and the setting up
debt by
was concluded with Nicatoms receivership. Such an agreement
government had been
ragua in 1911, but only after a pro-American American marines. Within
established with the help of a landing of
marine continit became necessary to station a permanent
a year
remained until 1925 and returned again from
gent in Nicaragua (it
the
government and
1927 to 1933) in order to sustain
pro-American
the customs receivership. Haitian policy was similarly oriented
The Taft administration's financial participation as a means of
toward introducing American
refused to sancEuropean influence. The State Department
limiting
Haitian bank concession until 50 percent participation the 1910
had been included and certain exploitive
tion by American bankers from the contract. The department's
features had been removed
transaction indicated the
activities in connection with the 1910
a desire to limit
stabilization of several policy criteria including:
foreign
interests in Haiti; a refusal to permit
the extent of European
a desire to promote
influence in a Haitian customs receivership; and a concern over the
American participation in Haitian finances;
the department's
viability of Haitian finances, as demonstrated by
and thereefforts to secure a contract that would be constructive
to result in a repetition of the loan default-intervenfore less likely
tion syndrome.
also becoming increasingly conThe Taft administration was
in Haiti. In 1912 Secretary
cerned about internal order and stability in his honor at Port-auKnox, speaking pointedly at a banquet given
Prince, said:
which my country has assumed as the
At a time when the obligation and of the world in creating a highagent of the interest of all America Panama Canal] is about to be
way for international commerce [the
finances, as demonstrated by
and thereefforts to secure a contract that would be constructive
to result in a repetition of the loan default-intervenfore less likely
tion syndrome.
also becoming increasingly conThe Taft administration was
in Haiti. In 1912 Secretary
cerned about internal order and stability in his honor at Port-auKnox, speaking pointedly at a banquet given
Prince, said:
which my country has assumed as the
At a time when the obligation and of the world in creating a highagent of the interest of all America Panama Canal] is about to be
way for international commerce [the --- Page 64 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
with the conviction that the fullest success
realized, we are impressed
dependent on the peace and stability
of our work is, to a notable degree,
the prosperity and material welof our neighbors and on their enjoying
A community liable to
fare which flow from orderly self-government. checked in its progress by the consebe torn by internal dissension or
obligations is not in a good
quences of nonfulfllment of international benefits accruing from enlarged composition to deserve and reap the certain to come about with the opening
mercial opportunities, such as are
obstruction to the general enjoyof the canal. It may indeed become an
ment of those opportunities."
order and stability the United States of course
In emphasizing
balance favored American interassumed that the existing political
changes unfavorable
that disorder might result in political
ests and
for
stability, and orderly
to the United States. Concern
peace,
facet of
in the Caribbean was a continuing
the
political processes
twentieth century. Indeed, by
American policy in the early
office, this concern had
time the Wilson administration entered and "stability" had bebecome axiomatic, and the terms "order" Caribbean were concliches. Disorder and instability in the
come
United States security in and of themselves,
sidered threats to
involvement.
irrespective of immediate European
the Caribbean policy of
The Wilson administration continued the area, and was even more acseeking to dominate and stabilize
military force and
administrations in exercising
tive than preceding
achieve these ends. This was true despite
diplomatic pressure to
criticized the Republicans
the fact that the Democrats had severely Wilson and Secretary of
for imperialism and that both Woodrow
idealBryan tended to be more rhetorically
State William Jennings
than their blatantly materialistic predeistic on foreign policy issues
cessors had been.
while emphasizing the need
In his 1913 Mobile speech, Wilson,
economic
for economic
disclaimed
govemment-spensred
expansion,
of dealing with Latin-American
exploitation and envisioned a policy
Bryan had a long
countries "upon terms of equality and honor."
assistance
and special governmental
record of opposing imperialism
election
financial interests. In the
presidential
to privileged
campaign, he had said:
row
idealBryan tended to be more rhetorically
State William Jennings
than their blatantly materialistic predeistic on foreign policy issues
cessors had been.
while emphasizing the need
In his 1913 Mobile speech, Wilson,
economic
for economic
disclaimed
govemment-spensred
expansion,
of dealing with Latin-American
exploitation and envisioned a policy
Bryan had a long
countries "upon terms of equality and honor."
assistance
and special governmental
record of opposing imperialism
election
financial interests. In the
presidential
to privileged
campaign, he had said: --- Page 65 ---
THE DECISION TO INTERVENE
When
profitable unless it is voluntary.
Trade cannot be permanently of securing it must be taken out of
trade is secured by force, the cost
enough to cover the expense.
the profits, and the profits are never large but for the fact that the expense
Such a system never would be defended the
are enjoyed by a few."
is borne by all the people, while profits
Caribbean situation as secretary of state thirIn approaching the understood that the principal threat to
teen years later, Bryan
financial involvement, and he
American control came from European attack the
He first prosought new tactics with which to
problem. debts of Caribbean
that the United States refund the foreign
and
posed
would have eliminated both European
countries. This plan
and would have ensured reasonable and
American financial interests
Latin-American countries. The
manageable terms to participating
military interventions,
would decrease the need for American
machiplan
often
by the exploitive
since interventions were
precipitated President Wilson rejected this
nations of private financial interests.
anplan as too radical." In 1915 Bryan suggested
debt-refunding
Latin-American countries from the problem
other plan for freeing
attendant evils: Latin-American govof financial exploitation and
4 percent, and deposit them
ernments would issue bonds drawing
the United States
with the United States government;
as security
bonds at 3 percent to cover the Latinwould then market its own
difference creating a sinking
American bonds, with the 1 percent
bonds. Bryan asserted
fund which would retire the Latin-American
we would hasten
that "by loaning our credit to these sister republics without incurring
development, and render them a great service
of these Govreal risk ourselves, for we need not fear that any
99 10
any
would default in the payment of such obligations."
ernments
would have liked to eliminate both EuroIt is clear that Bryan
interests from the Caribbean loanpean and private American
system,
business, in favor of a nonexploitive governmental
He
sharking
and ideologically unacceptable.
but his plans were politically
the interests of private Amerireverted to the policy of promoting had done, in an effort to supplant
can capital, as his predecessors
European interests.
adroit Haitian policy by the Wilson adThe formulation of an
of both Wilson
ministration was impeded by the initial ignorance
any
would default in the payment of such obligations."
ernments
would have liked to eliminate both EuroIt is clear that Bryan
interests from the Caribbean loanpean and private American
system,
business, in favor of a nonexploitive governmental
He
sharking
and ideologically unacceptable.
but his plans were politically
the interests of private Amerireverted to the policy of promoting had done, in an effort to supplant
can capital, as his predecessors
European interests.
adroit Haitian policy by the Wilson adThe formulation of an
of both Wilson
ministration was impeded by the initial ignorance --- Page 66 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
Caribbean affairs." The Secretary of State,
and Bryan concerning
the details of policy,
who was to be responsible for formulating summoned John H.
knew almost nothing about Haiti. In 1912 Bryan Nationale in Port-auof the Banque
Allen, the American manager asked Allen to tell him everything there
Prince, to Washington and
Allen had described the country to
was to know about Haiti. After
think of itl Niggers speaking
him, Bryan exclaimed, "Dear me,
by the scarcity
French." Bryan's own ignorance was compounded the State DepartCaribbean specialists within
of knowledgeable
ment.
Bryan dismissed many incumUpon taking over the department,
them with political apagents and replaced
bent Latin-American
State
officer posted to
pointees." 18 In a 1913 letter to a
Department
the Dominican Republic, Bryan inquired:
yourself with the
Now that you have arrived and are acquainting have at your disposal
situation, can you let me know what positions you You have had enough
with which to reward deserving Democrats? workers . . : are when the camexperience in politics to know how valuable find suitable rewards for all the
paign is on, and how difficult it is to
deserving."*
unfortunate on the
The personnel situation in Haiti was especially Minister Arthur Baillyeve of the intervention because American
was neither trusted
Blanchard, although a professional diplomat, State
competent by either Bryan or
Department
nor considered
Counselor Robert Lansing."
was forced to seek competent
Under these circumstances Bryan L. Farnham was one of the
advice wherever he could find it. Roger
familiar with
available to Bryan who was thoroughly
few people
who was more than willing to offer his
Haitian affairs. Farnham,
of National City Bank of New York
services, was a vice-president Nationale in Haiti, and, after 1913, president
City and of Banque of Haiti. In spite of Farnham's potential
of National Railway
hostility to Wall Street,
conflict of interests and Bryan's reputed formulation and execuleaned heavily on Farnham for both
Bryan
policy in Haiti." Bryan even followed
tion of State Department
of some of the personnel sent
Farnham's lead on the appointment
few people
who was more than willing to offer his
Haitian affairs. Farnham,
of National City Bank of New York
services, was a vice-president Nationale in Haiti, and, after 1913, president
City and of Banque of Haiti. In spite of Farnham's potential
of National Railway
hostility to Wall Street,
conflict of interests and Bryan's reputed formulation and execuleaned heavily on Farnham for both
Bryan
policy in Haiti." Bryan even followed
tion of State Department
of some of the personnel sent
Farnham's lead on the appointment --- Page 67 ---
THE DECISION TO INTERVENE
Farnham's recommendation
to Haiti, on one occasion first accepting
as Farnham changed
then weakly complying
for a special agent,
different man. 17
his mind and substituted a
man in Haiti was neatly complemented
Farnham's role as Bryan's
Nationale. While the 1910
by his position as mentor of the Banque American participation and
Banque reorganization provided for
during the
the American role became even more important
were
control,
when all questions of routine management
war in Europe,
chaired by Farnham.". After the
handled by a New York committee
two sources of difficulty
contract went into effect,
1910 Banque
Nationale, represented by Farnham,
developed between the Banque
(1) the Banque persisted in
and successive Haitian governments:
and (2) the Banque,
its efforts to secure a customs receivership treasury service and
which held the concession for the government attempted to restrict
was the sole repository of government funds,
into financial
income and thereby force the government debt. Default
government
default on the French
destitution and concomitant
in further borrowings from Geron the debt would, in turn, result
intervention.
merchants and thus lead to American
man
for customs control had been
Despite the facts that the provision
the insistence of the
deleted from the 1910 Banque contract bankers on had assured the deState Department and that American not be collected by the
that Haitian customs would
partment
successive Haitian governments tryBanque, Farnham approached
He threatto induce them to agree to a customs receivership."
loans
ing
with American intervention and also offered
ened the Haitians
on condition that the
desperate Haitian governments
to financially
be granted customs control. He also
United States government
railroad concessions." Because
offered loans as bait for further
were considerably
Farnham's 1911 efforts to procure a receivership he was forced to play
in advance of those of the State Department,
was
informing the department that no receivership
a double game,
refusing to close a loan until the
in prospect while simultaneously
customs control, In pressHaitian government agreed to American
and trying to force
ing the Haitian government for a and receivership the New York bankers were
the department's hand, Farnham Haiti
W. Furniss who reopposed by American Minister to
Henry and was, in turn, depeatedly pointed out Farnham's duplicity
1911 efforts to procure a receivership he was forced to play
in advance of those of the State Department,
was
informing the department that no receivership
a double game,
refusing to close a loan until the
in prospect while simultaneously
customs control, In pressHaitian government agreed to American
and trying to force
ing the Haitian government for a and receivership the New York bankers were
the department's hand, Farnham Haiti
W. Furniss who reopposed by American Minister to
Henry and was, in turn, depeatedly pointed out Farnham's duplicity --- Page 68 ---
1915-1934
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI,
UNITED
City Bank as being hostile
by National
to
nounced to the department
case, Farnham's many attempts
American interests." In any
Haitian govto
were foiled by unresponsive even though
negotiate a receivership refused to give up national sovereignty as bait to
ernments, which
financial support, offered survival which
Farnham, by pledging regimes. Relinquishment of customs, have meant
a series of ephemeral of
revenues, would funds from
were the sole source control government of all Haitian government Nationale already
complete American
since the Banque
servcollection through expenditure,
in the treasury
all funds once they were deposited
Furniss was
controlled
advent of the Wilson administration, seems to have
ice. With the
and Famham, whom Bryan
adviser
as minister
State Department
replaced
a became the leading
thenceforth directed
trusted completely," affairs. United States policy was
and the State
on Haitian
of a customs receivership, the Banque Natoward the achievement to work in concert with
Department proceeded
attempted to procure
tionale. Farnham and the State Department and early 1915, the
While
receivership in 1914
decustoms
a second stratagem
a negotiated
employed
Banque Nationale simultaneously
into a receivenhip-withsigned to force the Haitian government reform fund.
loan
a 10 million franc monetary
65 million franc
holding
contract and contingent be set aside and held
The 1910 Banque that 10 million francs
to bolster the
included a provision for future monetary reform intended Before any plan
by the Banque which had been severely inflated. recovery, and
Haitian gourde,
the gourde made a vigorous was
into
effect,
obviated."
could be put
total redemption of paper gourdes redemption plans
the contemplated refused to agree to several partial insisting that the new
The Banque alternatives by the government, called for the comoffered as violate the 1910 contract, which and gave exclusive right
plans elimination would
of government currency the Banque and President
plete issue to the Banque. In 1914
in which one-fourth
of note
executed a redemption scheme but the plan failed,
Michel Oreste
fund was used;
of the 10 million franc monetary
correspondence or with in
either in the Bryan-Wilson about working
*I have found no indication, that Bryan had any misgivings
the State Department papers,
Farnham.
que alternatives by the government, called for the comoffered as violate the 1910 contract, which and gave exclusive right
plans elimination would
of government currency the Banque and President
plete issue to the Banque. In 1914
in which one-fourth
of note
executed a redemption scheme but the plan failed,
Michel Oreste
fund was used;
of the 10 million franc monetary
correspondence or with in
either in the Bryan-Wilson about working
*I have found no indication, that Bryan had any misgivings
the State Department papers,
Farnham. --- Page 69 ---
THE DECISION TO INTERVENE
The
when Oreste was overthrown.
and payments were suspended
fund remained in the hands of
remainder of the 10 million franc
drawing
and was used for routine banking purposes,
the Banque
while the Haitian government received,
up to 12 percent interest,
interest."" A search made
dispute, only 1.5 percent
after a protracted
in December, 1914, revealed that
by a Haitian examining magistrate fund was actually in the Banque's
only $162,050 of the redemption there should have been $1 million. 25
vaults in Port-au-Prince, where
and redundancy of plans for
The Banque, despite the abandonment
access to the
reform, refused to allow the government
monetary claiming that it was a trust fund.
money,
toward the financial
In 1914 the Banque took a decisive step defaulting on the constrangulation of the Haitian government by had agreed to advance
vention budgétaire, by which the Banque instead of holding all governgovernment funds on a monthly basis fiscal
as called for by the
until the end of each
year,
ment receipts
claimed that it was forced to
1910 Banque contract. The Banque
of the European money
take this step because of the condition
Haitian
the outset of World War I.* The
government,
market at
expenses, was forced to float inleft without money for operating and to seek financial remedies as
ternal loans at disastrous rates Madison R. Smith summed up the
best it could. American Minister
situation in a report to Bryan:
in the loan contract providing for advancements by
There is nothing
budgétaire has been in the nature of an
the bank, and the convention the bank. As before stated, the suspension
accommodation extended by
would bring the Government
of the convention budgétaire most likely It is just this condition that
to a condition where it could not belief operate. of the bank that the Government
the bank desires, for it is the would be forced to ask the assistance
when confronted by such a crisis, financial tangle and that an American
of the United States in adjusting its
supervision of the customs would result.""
claiming force majeure as justification for stopping
The Banque,
refused to consider pleas of force majeure
the convention budgétaire,
with respect to releasing the redunfrom the Haitian government In spite of the difficulties in the
dant monetary reform fund." allegedly prevented the Banque
European money market which
belief operate. of the bank that the Government
the bank desires, for it is the would be forced to ask the assistance
when confronted by such a crisis, financial tangle and that an American
of the United States in adjusting its
supervision of the customs would result.""
claiming force majeure as justification for stopping
The Banque,
refused to consider pleas of force majeure
the convention budgétaire,
with respect to releasing the redunfrom the Haitian government In spite of the difficulties in the
dant monetary reform fund." allegedly prevented the Banque
European money market which --- Page 70 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
from fulfilling the convention
offer a single recourse to the budgétaire, the Banque continued to
advance of funds
Haitian government-an immediate
customs receivership," contingent upon government acceptance of a
The Banque engaged in various other
non-Banque foreign loans and
schemes, such as blocking
to drive the Haitian
supporting revolutions, in its efforts
United States
government into a receivership and
intervention." 80
bring about
State Department the
Conversely, in its relations with the
toward
Banque depicted itself as being
corrupt and irresponsible Haitian
solicitous
Farnham informed the State
governments. In 1915
American interests in the bank Department that, from 1911 on, "The
their French
have, during this period, rather led
colleagues in extending assistance. 99 31
Farnham's main stratagem in serving as
affairs was to play up Franco-German
Bryan's adviser on Haitian
pointing to increasing disorder
activities while simultaneously
ported that French and
in Haitian politics. 82 Farnham reover the Banque Nationale German interests were conniving to take
and the National
interests were unable to hold out
Railway, that American
without State
against the French and Germans
Department assistance, that
Haitian finance and
Germans were dominating
commerce, and that Haitian
becoming increasingly violent and destructive revolutions were
erty." Farnham's alarming
to American proptrigues, partly corroborated reports about French and German intion in Port-au-Prince,
by dispatches from the American
created grave
legaA 1914 Division of Latin-American anxiety within the department.
stated that Germans
Affairs memorandum to
were seeking "almost
Bryan
financial and commercial affairs of the
complete control of the
going to set up a coaling station at island," that Germans were
guise of a general commercial
Mole-Saint-Nicolas under the
3,000-ton store of coal in
store, that the French had set up a
Germans
a steel hulk at
were trying to buy the
Port-au-Prince, and that
National
o
a SD
Railway. The assessment
and activity 838.00/1667, in the Caribbean Stabler to Bryan, May 13, 1914. The extent of German
troversy. A recent study
during this period remains a subject of
influence
bidding for canal
indicates that contemporary reports of
historical conrights in Nicaragua in 1914
German interest in
"A Nicaragua Note in order to increase interest in the United were spurious and were contrived by
on the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty and
States. Robert Freeman Smith,
1914," Carlbbean Studies, IX, No. 1 (April, 1969), German Interest in a Nicaraguan Canal,
63-66.
May 13, 1914. The extent of German
troversy. A recent study
during this period remains a subject of
influence
bidding for canal
indicates that contemporary reports of
historical conrights in Nicaragua in 1914
German interest in
"A Nicaragua Note in order to increase interest in the United were spurious and were contrived by
on the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty and
States. Robert Freeman Smith,
1914," Carlbbean Studies, IX, No. 1 (April, 1969), German Interest in a Nicaraguan Canal,
63-66. --- Page 71 ---
THE DECISION TO INTERVENE
as being ascendant was largely
of German commercial penetration
34 The specalthough German investments were negligible.
justified,
assiduously overdrawn by Farnham,
ter of German penetration,
to demur on the part of
by an obverse tendency
inwas compounded
American investors who expressed
American business interests. United Fruit Company, refused to go
terest in Haiti, such as the
took over the country and
in unless the United States government Farnham added a final element of
stopped revolutions." In 1915
of all American interests
threatening Bryan with an exodus
stress by
failed to intervene. 86
if the administration
Farnham's reports of FrancoBryan was greatly alarmed by
taken in by even the more
German activities and was apparently
to Wilson that Farnimplausible stories. In 1915 Bryan reported could not be put into writing,
ham had told him some things that
but that
that the German and French Ministers acted simultaneously- beIt seems
there seems to be some sympathetic cooperation
if not together-and German interests in Haiti. There are some inditween the French and
advantage of Môle St. Nicolas. 87
cations that their plans include taking
were then at war, it seems absurd to
Since France and Germany
a naval base in
that they would cooperate in establishing
reason
and Wilson were determined that French
Haiti. In any case, Bryan
should not be permitted to take
and especially German interests
over Haiti.
threat to withdraw American business
In response to Farnham's
States must act to protect
interests, Bryan agreed that the United
and requested that
the French and Germans,
the Americans against
the French shares in the Banque
the American interests acquire United States control of Haitian
Nationale. 38 Farnham insisted on
efforts
and Bryan acceded, even though the department's
a
customs,
diplomatic means had failed. In
to secure a receivership through
stated:
note to Wilson in April, 1915, Bryan
to remain there, with a view of
The American interests are willing
the Bank a branch of the
purchasing a controlling interest and making this
this Government
American bank-they are willing to do
provided
Americans against
the French shares in the Banque
the American interests acquire United States control of Haitian
Nationale. 38 Farnham insisted on
efforts
and Bryan acceded, even though the department's
a
customs,
diplomatic means had failed. In
to secure a receivership through
stated:
note to Wilson in April, 1915, Bryan
to remain there, with a view of
The American interests are willing
the Bank a branch of the
purchasing a controlling interest and making this
this Government
American bank-they are willing to do
provided --- Page 72 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
them and their idea seems to be that
takes the steps necessary to protect that does not include a control of the
no protection will be sufficient
Customs House."
to achieve control in Haiti, but
Bryan was reluctant to use force
and probably unavoidfelt, at this point, that force was necessary
: of the Haitian
able. Wilson, commenting on the "sinister appearance" should be sustained and
situation, agreed that American interests
assisted. 40
German advances in Haiti, Wilson and
In resisting French and
American policy of limiting
Bryan were continuing the established
order, and stability in
European interests and insisting on peace, American economic
the Caribbean, while simultaneously furthering of the United States in the
interests. The broad strategic interests
implications, were the
Caribbean, which of course had economic
interests in Haiti.
factors, rather than specific economic
primary
of the Wilson administration's Haitian policy
The major emphasis
of foreign interests, rather than on
interdiction
was on negative of American economic imperialism.
positive promotion interests in Haiti, despite the energetic efforts
American economic
of limited scope. United States investof Farnham and others, were
$4 million as against $220
ments in Haiti in 1913 amounted to only Cuba and $800 million in
million across the Windward Passage in
States imperialism
Mexico. Relative to the overall thrust of United
crucial but economically
in the Caribbean, Haiti was strategically thought Haiti had great poof little consequence. Some Americans because of abundant and
tential for future economic development to be fertile land; but no
cheap labor coupled with what appeared and few businessmen
had ever been made,
serious investigation
Those few American entreprewere even aware of the country."
projects in Haiti,
who had attempted to start agricultural
neurs
of the 1910 fig banana concession, failed
such as J. P. McDonald
American economic interests in Haiti
miserably. The only significant railroads and the Banque. These
were the capital investments in investments depended on lucrative
and previous American capital
economic developconcessions rather than on general
government
ment.
tential for future economic development to be fertile land; but no
cheap labor coupled with what appeared and few businessmen
had ever been made,
serious investigation
Those few American entreprewere even aware of the country."
projects in Haiti,
who had attempted to start agricultural
neurs
of the 1910 fig banana concession, failed
such as J. P. McDonald
American economic interests in Haiti
miserably. The only significant railroads and the Banque. These
were the capital investments in investments depended on lucrative
and previous American capital
economic developconcessions rather than on general
government
ment. --- Page 73 ---
THE DECISION TO INTERVENE
American economic expansion in Haiti,
Bryan, while favoring
American economic interests when
subordinated the promotion of
In 1915, when
conflicted with strategic and political goals.
these
offered concessions for economic exploitathe Haitian government
attempt to negotiate a
to an American
tion as a counterproposal rejected the concessions, replying:
customs receivership, Bryan
to
in every proper way American investWhile we desire encourage that this can be better done by contributing
ments in Haiti, we believe
special concessions to Americans.
to stability and order than by favoring itself of business opportunities in
American capital will gladly avail
necessary for profitable proHaiti when assured of the peace and quiet assistance to American investors
duction . . we shall give all legitimate just as binding to protect Haiti,
in Haiti, but we are under obligation and exploitation at the hands
as far as our influence goes, from injustice
of Americans. 42
which was thought to be of crucial imporLong-term stability,
over short-term
tance for strategic reasons, was given precedence to the massive
Stability was also prerequisite
economic exploitation.
would be
to develop Haiti into
American investments that
required the case in Cuba. Past experia lucrative economic satellite, as was
to sustained
had shown that exploitive concessions, as opposed
ence
sources of trouble and
agricultural development, were continuing
demoralization and instability.
contributed to political
business interests in Haiti, repreIt is true that the American
influential in the formulation
sented by Farnham, were particularly that the business interests received
of State Department policy and
in their conflicts with
full diplomatic support from the department not mean that Bryan and
the Haitian government, but this does their behalf. Rather, Bryan
predominantly in
Wilson were acting
interests as instruments of
and Wilson sought to use the American focused on the restriction
policy, which remained
State Department
and the establishment of orderly and
of Franco-German influence
the United States and capable of
stable government amenable to
European encroachmaintaining political independence against
in Haiti was an
Concurrent American economic penetration
ments.
the
consideration in the formuextra beneft, rather than
pivotal
full diplomatic support from the department not mean that Bryan and
the Haitian government, but this does their behalf. Rather, Bryan
predominantly in
Wilson were acting
interests as instruments of
and Wilson sought to use the American focused on the restriction
policy, which remained
State Department
and the establishment of orderly and
of Franco-German influence
the United States and capable of
stable government amenable to
European encroachmaintaining political independence against
in Haiti was an
Concurrent American economic penetration
ments.
the
consideration in the formuextra beneft, rather than
pivotal --- Page 74 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
however, was more than just an instrulation of policy. Farnham,
His exploitation of his special
ment of State Department policy.
with the machinations of
position as Bryan's man in Haiti, along
and perhaps cruNationale, constituted the important
the Banque
economic interests played in the Wilson
cial factor that American intervene in Haiti.
administration's decision to
in the decision to intervene in Haiti
The main considerations
military. With the construcwere strategic and, more specifically,
investment of American
tion of the Panama Canal and large-scale United States military security
capital in Cuba, the maintenance of Wilson and Bryan both felt
demanded control of the Caribbean.
countries would be as
that foreign financial control of Caribbean
control by foreign governments
dangerous as outright and Bryan were led to believe that foreign
In Haiti, where Wilson
the situation was furcapitalists were controlling the government,
as a potenby the existence of Mole-Saint-Nicolas
ther complicated
base." At the outset the Wilson adtial coaling station and naval
American base, as had several
ministration wanted the Môle as an
and Wilson apadministrations. In 1913 Bryan suggested
the Môle
previous
which the United States would procure
proved a plan by
and 10 miles wide extending into
and a strip of land 20 miles long
the option of either
with Haitian residents being given
the interior,
the United States or becoming American citiselling their land to
this time, however, the Navy
zens if they wished to remain." By
base across the WindDepartment, which already had an excellent
to
the
Bay, Cuba, had come regard
ward Passage at Guantânamo for its own purposes, but insisted
Môle as obsolete and superfluous
it." In 1914 and 1915
that no other nation be permitted to acquire the Germans had serious
convinced that
the State Department,
interested in establishing
designs on the Môle but itself no longer for outright acquisition
base there, dropped the plan
an American
from the Haitian government that
and sought instead guarantees
power. The Wilson
the Môle would not be ceded to any foreign
that, because of
administration ultimately came to the conclusion
Haitian
instability and domination by foreign capitalists,
political
insufficient and that United States intervention
guarantees were eliminate the threat of European encroachment."
was required to
other nation be permitted to acquire the Germans had serious
convinced that
the State Department,
interested in establishing
designs on the Môle but itself no longer for outright acquisition
base there, dropped the plan
an American
from the Haitian government that
and sought instead guarantees
power. The Wilson
the Môle would not be ceded to any foreign
that, because of
administration ultimately came to the conclusion
Haitian
instability and domination by foreign capitalists,
political
insufficient and that United States intervention
guarantees were eliminate the threat of European encroachment."
was required to --- Page 75 ---
THE DECISION TO INTERVENE
in its
of Haiti to the United States lay
The strategic importance Passage and in the relative weakness
location along the Windward
World War I. In 1903 the Ameriof the United States Navy before
the world's navies, and by
can navy ranked sixth in size among
as a result of pro1914 had suffered a severe decline in efficiency
States had
concentration in Mexican waters. The United the Panlonged
in the Caribbean by building
developed a strong position naval base at Guantânamo Bay but,
ama Canal and establishing a
was vulnergiven the weakness of the fleet, the American Caribbean position naval stations,
which possessed a number of
able. Britain,
the United States and concentrated her
had abandoned the area to
were
while France and Germany
preoccupied
fleet against Germany,
waters." 48 Nevertheless, any of the three
with activities in their home
the United States in the
powers could conceivably have challenged have dominated the area.
Caribbean and, in terms of naval strength, feared the Germans, who
The Wilson administration especially
had they been
have been formidable opponents
would theoretically
base and then station their fleet there.
able to procure a Caribbean
in the Dominican Republic, and
Mole-Saint-Nicolas, Samanâ Bay
vulnerable to German
the Danish West Indies were considered lacked firm control over local
seizure because the United States
had made a series of atpolitics in each case. The United States
dating from Secretary
tempts to secure the three strategic harbors, Samana
in the 1860s.
of State William H. Seward's designs on
Bay
miliadministration took over all three by establishing
The Wilson
in the Dominican Republic in
tary occupations in Haiti in 1915,
worthless Danish West
1916, and by purchasing the economically the Danish West Indies was
Indies in 1916. The offer to purchase
to
German
accompanied by threat of American seizure turned prevent down the
control in the event that the Danish government
offer. 49
Josephus Daniels, and Robert
Wilson's Secretary of the Navy,
fearful of German
Lansing of the State Department were especially
and after
in the Caribbean. Lansing, first as counselor
activities
successor as secretary of state, was suspicious
June, 1915, Bryan's
in Haiti and did not trust
of National City Bank's machinations the Haitians and had been
Farnham, who he felt was not liked by falling out of favor with
arrogant toward them." Despite Farnham's
control in the event that the Danish government
offer. 49
Josephus Daniels, and Robert
Wilson's Secretary of the Navy,
fearful of German
Lansing of the State Department were especially
and after
in the Caribbean. Lansing, first as counselor
activities
successor as secretary of state, was suspicious
June, 1915, Bryan's
in Haiti and did not trust
of National City Bank's machinations the Haitians and had been
Farnham, who he felt was not liked by falling out of favor with
arrogant toward them." Despite Farnham's --- Page 76 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
toward intervention was
the departure of Bryan, the momentum
diminished since Lansing was an ardent Germanophobe
in no way
German operations in Mexico, Haiti,
in his own right. Discussing elsewhere in Latin America several
the Dominican Republic, and
of state, Lansing stated, "Everyweeks after taking over as secretary
to accomplish the
where German agents are plotting and intriguing
- and argued for "the prevensupreme purpose of their government," German influence becoming
tion by all means in our power of
or near the Panama
dominant in any nation bordering the Caribbean
Canal." 51
the interIn a 1922 letter to a Senate committee investigating for intervention
stated that the reason
vention in Haiti, Lansing Haiti's falling into German hands.""
was the imminent threat of
revolutions, dominating
He said that the Germans were financing exclusive control of
local politics, and were about to take over He also referred to a
Haitian customs and the Mole-Saint-Nicolas.
from the German
"mysterious action" in 1914, when a landing party the German minister
cruiser Karlsruhe was reported turned back by
o
just as the war broke out in Europe.
on the pier at Port-au-Prince this 1922 letter were, however, gross exagLansing's assertions in
with the connivance of the State
gerations; the letter was written
the occupation of Haiti
Department which in 1922 was defending
that Lansing
political attacks and which arranged
against partisan
the original intershould stress the German threat as having justified said that fear of
vention." 68 In his 1935 War Memoirs, Lansing the approaches to the
Germany's establishing submarine bases along in Haiti and the
Panama Canal had prompted the intervention
purchase of the Danish West Indies."
advocated an extenIn a 1915 memorandum to Wilson, Lansing "Caribbean Policy"
sion of the Monroe Doctrine to constitute a new would counter the
in which forcible United States intervention Caribbean countries. 55 Landanger of European financial control of that European fnancial
sing believed, as did Wilson and Bryan,
States security as
control constituted as great a menace to United that American
cession or occupation. Lansing argued
did outright
informed the State
the German government
e Shortly after Lansing's statement, Karlsruhe incident had not taken place. SD 838.51/1294,
Department that the alleged Embassy, Washington, June 10, 1922.
Aide-Memoire from German
sion of the Monroe Doctrine to constitute a new would counter the
in which forcible United States intervention Caribbean countries. 55 Landanger of European financial control of that European fnancial
sing believed, as did Wilson and Bryan,
States security as
control constituted as great a menace to United that American
cession or occupation. Lansing argued
did outright
informed the State
the German government
e Shortly after Lansing's statement, Karlsruhe incident had not taken place. SD 838.51/1294,
Department that the alleged Embassy, Washington, June 10, 1922.
Aide-Memoire from German --- Page 77 ---
THE DECISION TO INTERVENE
and honest
demanded the establishment of stable
national safety
taking control of public revenues
governments in the Caribbean by
revolutionaries and foreigners
and thus removing the prize sought by
that the primary
who financed them. Lansing stated emphatically
rather than
of his "Caribbean Policy" was nationalistic,
purpose
Pan-American, saying:
control over American territory is not
The opposition to European of
American state. . . The essenprimarily to preserve the integrity any which would menace the national
tial idea is to prevent a condition make no argument on the ground
interests of the United States. . . . I
of these republics by the
of the benefit which would result to the peoples
adoption of this policy."
benefits for the Caribbean countries, such as prosperAttendant
>> were of secondary importance.
ity and "intellectual development,"
memorandum, saying, "The
Wilson responded favorably to Lansing's
and I thank you
argument in this paper seems to be unanswerable,
for setting it out SO explicitly and fully.""
Daniels was concerned with preSecretary of the Navy Josephus
submarine base in Haiti.
the Germans from establishing a
venting
States entered the war in Europe, Daniels
Even before the United
for submarine bases from
had sent men to inspect all potential sites
base in Haiti
and the possibility of a German
Maine to Panama,
letter to William Allen
caused him special anxiety. Writing a private
White in 1930, Daniels recalled:
the soldiers to France in safety, my greatest anxiety
Outside of getting
submarines might come over to the Caribbean
always was that German
the
to
You will recall
to the Gulf and sink tankers on
way Europe.
not
or
tankers on the other side and if we had
that they sunk very many
south of Florida they would undoubtbeen very vigilant with our ships over on this side and sunk tankers.
edly have secured a base and come coast later and ravage merchant
You know, they did come over to our
sunk a merchant ship I was
shipping. From the very day the first U boat
into the Caribbean or
nervous and distressed for fear they would get
to do off the
the Gulf of Mexico and do what they later attempted
Delaware coast."
on
way Europe.
not
or
tankers on the other side and if we had
that they sunk very many
south of Florida they would undoubtbeen very vigilant with our ships over on this side and sunk tankers.
edly have secured a base and come coast later and ravage merchant
You know, they did come over to our
sunk a merchant ship I was
shipping. From the very day the first U boat
into the Caribbean or
nervous and distressed for fear they would get
to do off the
the Gulf of Mexico and do what they later attempted
Delaware coast." --- Page 78 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
1915,
American intervention in Haiti in July,
At the time of the
submarine and the outcome of the
the military potential of the
factors. In retrospect it seems
European war were both unknown
alarmed over the German
that Lansing and Daniels were unduly
somehow procured a
threat in the Caribbean, but had Germany United States position in
base in Haiti and then won the war, the compromised.
the Caribbean would have been seriously
of the long-term
While the decision to intervene in Haiti was part
the
of United States hegemony in the Caribbean, and ultidevelopment German incursion was a more immediate factor
threat of
tactics for executing the
mately the decisive one. State Department
with diplomatic
intervention evolved over two years, beginning with the landing
and ending
efforts to obtain a customs receivership
of marines in July, 1915."
supported American busiThe Wilson administration consistently interceding on behalf of
in Haiti from the outset,
ness interests
in March, 1913, by urging the Haitian
Farnham's National Railway
constructed track. The
to accept three sections of badly
government
contract clauses prohibiting diplomatic
State Department, despite both the railway and the Banque Nationale
intervention, supported
with the Haitian government. The dein all subsequent disputes committed itself to support the Banque
partment had apparently
transaction, when department
during the 1910 Banque contract
Farnham stated
arranged for American participation.
representatives memorandum to Bryan and Wilson:
in a 1915
were made by the then officials of the
While no specific statements
was generally underto such effect, it never-the-less
State Department
involved that, should the occasion arise,
stood by the American interests
from their Government such prompt
the American interests would receive
deem necessary in the circumand full support as the Department might
stances. 60
instance of support was the Machias incident
The most blatant
after last-minute consultation with
of December, 1914, when Bryan, Machias to Port-au-Prince and
Farnham, dispatched the U.S.S.
removed $500,000 of Haitian
landed a detachment of marines which
Nationale. The
funds from the vaults of the Banque
government
olved that, should the occasion arise,
stood by the American interests
from their Government such prompt
the American interests would receive
deem necessary in the circumand full support as the Department might
stances. 60
instance of support was the Machias incident
The most blatant
after last-minute consultation with
of December, 1914, when Bryan, Machias to Port-au-Prince and
Farnham, dispatched the U.S.S.
removed $500,000 of Haitian
landed a detachment of marines which
Nationale. The
funds from the vaults of the Banque
government --- Page 79 ---
THE DECISION TO INTERVENE
to New York, where it was deposited
money was then transported
61 In January, 1915, the
with National City Bank for safekeeping."
in
of the
Nationale raised the United States flag
place
Banque
it would henceforth be under the protection
French flag, signifying
of the United States."
in his effort to achieve
Farnham enlisted the State Department 1914. In January he
American customs receivership in early
an
control was necessary and that two
wrote Bryan that customs
whom he was supporting were
candidates
Haitian presidential control but required American intervention
amenable to American
and Wilson, hoping that
to achieve power. 63 In March, 1914, Bryan
customs rewould request an American
the Haitian government
and France, both of whom had
ceivership, decided that Germany
receivership, should
expressed interest in joining in any American
a scheme
be allowed to participate." 64 In July Bryan accepted
not
Plan," which envisioned a United States
known as the "Farnham
assisted by the American
and which Farnham,
customs receivership
to negotiate with Haitian policonsul at Cap Haitien, attempted
a proposed draft
ticians. 65 At this time Bryan sent to Port-au-Prince modeled after the 1907
convention that was
of a Haitian-American
for an American
but included provisions
Dominican receivership
financial adviser as well as for a customs receivership." a receivThe Farnham Plan and subsequent attempts to negotiate matter how desfailed because no Haitian government, no
ership
could afford to surrender
perate its financial or political situation, minister of foreign affairs who
national sovereignty. One Haitian
by the
deal with the United States was denounced
suggested a
and attempted to assault him
Haitian Senate, which rose in a body
and outright cession
physically." 67 Instead of a customs receivership
offered ecosuccessive Haitian governments
of Mole-Saint-Nicolas,
not to alienate the Môle to any
nomic concessions and guarantees
to
the State Departforeign power." 68 These were insufficient demanding: placate (1) a customs
ment, which, by November, 1914, was made
the Haitian govconvention; (2) settlement of claims settlement against of claims made
ernment by the American railroad; (8)
of foreign interests;
by the Banque Nationale; (4) full protection
the guarantee not to alienate the Môle."
and (5)
uccessive Haitian governments
of Mole-Saint-Nicolas,
not to alienate the Môle to any
nomic concessions and guarantees
to
the State Departforeign power." 68 These were insufficient demanding: placate (1) a customs
ment, which, by November, 1914, was made
the Haitian govconvention; (2) settlement of claims settlement against of claims made
ernment by the American railroad; (8)
of foreign interests;
by the Banque Nationale; (4) full protection
the guarantee not to alienate the Môle."
and (5) --- Page 80 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUFATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
commissions to
dispatched two special
The State Department continued efforts to negotiate a receivership,
Haiti in early 1915 in
efforts would not
that diplomatic
but it was becoming apparent
in June, 1915, that no
succeed. Commissioner Paul Fuller reported
because he
politician could afford to sign an agreement
Haitian
the country to the United States and
would be accused of selling the only way to carry out American
that armed intervention was
result with Germany and
policy. 70 Possible complications that might action were smoothed over
France because of unilateral American
wished to alienate
successfully, probably because neither country war. The German
the United States at that stage of the European
underassured the department that Germany
chargé in Washington States could not agree to German customs
stood that the United
and that the Imperial
participation for internal political reasons
only because
Foreign Office persisted in its claim to participation
the
in Germany. 71 At the time of the intervention
of public opinion
and hoped that the United States would
French expressed approval
of Haiti." In April, 1915, Bryan
be "energetic" in its revamping
left to be determined about
wrote Wilson that the only questions and the method. At this point
American intervention were the time
control Haiti through a
Bryan suggested that the United States
the Netherlands in
"resident Adviser" similar to the system used by
Java and the British in India."
little consideration
In the development of the intervention policy
instance when
to the rights of the Haitians. The only
was given
was given token recognition was
Haiti's right of self-determination that the Wilson Plan, by which the
a 1914 suggestion by Lansing elections in the Dominican Republic,
United States had supervised
which proved to be impracbe applied to Haiti." Even this plan, control by the United States.
ticable, was to have included customs
and
officials, confident of American superiority
State Department
of the period, tended to disparage
reflecting the racial prejudices
most foreign observers
Haitian achievements and capabilities, as had
throughout Haitian history. Lansing remarked:
of Liberia and Haiti show that the African race are for
The experience
and lack genius
devoid of any capacity for political there is organization in them an inherent tendency to
government. Unquestionably --- Page 81 ---
THE DECISION TO INTERVENE
and to cast aside the shackles of civilization which are
revert to savagery
nature. Of course there are many exceptions to
irksome to their physical but it is true of the mass, as we know from expethis racial weakness It is that which makes the negro problem practirience in this country.
cally unsolvable.*
were aware of the lack of respect AmeriHaitians, for their part,
The French minister at Port-aucans had for Haitian sovereignty.
in April, 1915, that "for
Prince reported to the French government and among the Whites
the Haitian the Americans are the Whites, for Blacks." 99 76
those who have the most insulting contempt Phillips, writing a memoranAssistant Secretary of State William in Haiti at the time of Amerdum summing up recent developments Haitian lack of public opinion, lack
ican intervention, pointed to
incompetence," 2: and
"complete political
to
of public responsibility,
stated: "These facts all point
growing demoralization. Phillips
the degree of civithe failure of an inferior people to maintain
any capacity of
lization left them by the French, or to develop respect and conentitling them to international
self government
complete forcible intervention
fidence. 77 Phillips recommended
presided over by a
and the establishment of military government
United States Army general.
summing up recent developments Haitian lack of public opinion, lack
ican intervention, pointed to
incompetence," 2: and
"complete political
to
of public responsibility,
stated: "These facts all point
growing demoralization. Phillips
the degree of civithe failure of an inferior people to maintain
any capacity of
lization left them by the French, or to develop respect and conentitling them to international
self government
complete forcible intervention
fidence. 77 Phillips recommended
presided over by a
and the establishment of military government
United States Army general. --- Page 82 ---
H
The Intervention
for United States intervention was the
The immediate occasion
Vilbrun Guillaume Sam in July,
overthrow of Haitian President
that intervention
1915. Declarations issued by the State Department
and
for humanitarian reasons to prevent anarchy
was undertaken
American warships had
bloodshed were spurious and misleading. waters throughout the
been maintaining a close vigil in Haitian
customs receiverunsuccessful attempts to negotiate an American operations as early
ship, and had been alerted for possible landing
as July, 1914.'
of Haiti were drawn up well in
Plans for military occupation
not
by a single,
showing that intervention was precipitated
advance,
"Plan for Landing
revolution. A detailed Navy Department
anarchic
92 drawn up in November,
and Occupying the City of Port-au-Prince,
1914, begins:
all semblance of law
has been overthrown;
Situation-The government local authorities admit their inability to protect
and order has ceased; the
overrun and in the hands of about 5,000
foreign interests, the city being
soldiers and civilian mobs.?
of the actual landings
This description could pass for a news report contingency plan, conwhich took place nine months later. Another sample letters for notifystructed in the summer of 1914, contained intentions: one such, under a
ing Haitian authorities of American left blank, stated that "the
1914 dateline with the day and month --- Page 83 ---
THE INTERVENTION
of the United States is solely for the estabof the President
naval
purpose of law and order.' >9 This same plan stipulated that
lishment
should not be used against organlanding forces at Port-au-Prince would instead be subjected to
ized armed troops ashore, which
out in the harbor." The
gunfire from American warships standing
judged to be
capacity for resistance was correctly
Haitian army's
report describing Haitian
negligible, with one 1914 intelligence rifles." When it became clear
soldiers as a mob armed with worthless
customs receiverthat the Haitians would not agree to a negotiated achieve American
ship and that military force was necessary invasion to
plans was an
ends, the only missing detail in the military
United States inHaitian revolution that would justify
lives
appropriate
of protecting American
tervention on the customary pretext record of any American life
and property. In fact, there was no
to the intervention."
having been lost or property destroyed prior
the United
of President Guillaume Sam provided
The overthrow
Not only were Haitian politics
States with the requisite opportunity.
in the preincreasingly chaotic, with seven presidents
becoming
but the overthrow of Sam was exceptionally
ceding five years,
both within Haiti and in
bloody and repugnant to public opinion less than five months, was implithe United States. Sam, in office
who were murdered
cated in the massacre of 167 political prisoners
taken
was being
by
by Sam's army commander as Port-au-Prince of prisoners, many of whom
revolutionary forces. After the massacre
Sam took refuge in the
were members of prominent elite families, General Oscar Etienne in the
French legation, and chief executioner violated the legations and
Dominican legation. Enraged mobs
from the French
killed both Sam and Etienne. Sam was dragged of his body were then
legation and publicly dismembered. Portions
the streets of Port-au-Prince in a grotesque specparaded around
vindictive cries from the mob."
tacle accompanied by
violation of foreign
Even before learning of the unprecedented marines under the comlegations, the State Department ordered
to land at Port-aumand of Rear Admiral William B. Caperton French, German, and
Prince. Unlike previous revolutions, landed when for short periods to protect
sometimes British marines were United States intended to go in alone.
their nationals, this time the
the
of British
was instructed to request
captains
Admiral Caperton
the streets of Port-au-Prince in a grotesque specparaded around
vindictive cries from the mob."
tacle accompanied by
violation of foreign
Even before learning of the unprecedented marines under the comlegations, the State Department ordered
to land at Port-aumand of Rear Admiral William B. Caperton French, German, and
Prince. Unlike previous revolutions, landed when for short periods to protect
sometimes British marines were United States intended to go in alone.
their nationals, this time the
the
of British
was instructed to request
captains
Admiral Caperton --- Page 84 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
in the area to abstain from landing forces,
and French warships the United States would protect all foreign
and to assure them that
had, in fact, requested a French
interests." The French minister
but a
after the violation of the French legation,
landing party
the French cruiser Descartes and helped
navigational error delayed
complications." The Descartes reavert possible Franco-American several months, until the French remained in Haitian waters for
over the violation of
ceived a satisfactory response to their protest
the legation.
overthrow of Sam was cited as justification for
The macabre
for American policy. The
intervention by subsequent apologists trustee of civilization in the
United States, as the self-appointed minimal standards of decency
Caribbean, was obligated to maintain
was readily demonand morality. The weakness of this argument
Haitian
of the intervention. A prominent
strated by opponents incident in a Southern United States town
writer, referring to an
from the local jail and burned alive
where a black man was dragged
also existed in the
in the town square, pointed out that barbarity
debate, sevUnited States." 8 In a 1929 United States congressional
assasnoted that the number of Haitian presidents
eral congressmen
almost the same as the number of Amerisinated over the years was and that since 1862, the year of the
can presidents assassinated
the number was identical-three
American recognition of Haiti,
the frequent overthrow
presidents killed in each country." Likewise, had eleven governments
of governments was not unique; France
from 1909 to 1914.
of American intervention, the
Whatever the moral implications
in the deliberations
missionary impulse did not figure prominently administration. Policy
of United States policy makers in the Wilson
with the sendiscussions centered around strategic considerations, intervention more
sational demise of Sam serving only to make and to those adpalatable to moralists outside the government, of the Navy Daniels, who
ministration officials, notably Secretary
marines at Cap Haitien several weeks earlier,
o The Descartes had landed French the arrival of Admiral Caperton, who undertook
but these were withdrawn upon interests during a revolutionary outbreak there.
the task of protecting Révolution all foreign d'Haiti, Juillet, 1915," La Revue Hebdomadaire at
Pierre Girard, "La
1925), 428-32. Girard was the French minister
(Paris), Année 34, VII (July,
Port-au-Prince in July, 1915.
Navy Daniels, who
ministration officials, notably Secretary
marines at Cap Haitien several weeks earlier,
o The Descartes had landed French the arrival of Admiral Caperton, who undertook
but these were withdrawn upon interests during a revolutionary outbreak there.
the task of protecting Révolution all foreign d'Haiti, Juillet, 1915," La Revue Hebdomadaire at
Pierre Girard, "La
1925), 428-32. Girard was the French minister
(Paris), Année 34, VII (July,
Port-au-Prince in July, 1915. --- Page 85 ---
THE INTERVENTION
incursions into
about the moral rightness of military
had qualms
Secretary of State Lansing took a
friendly neighboring countries.
Wilson a few days after the
decidedly cynical approach, writing
intervention:
of
as we had at Vera Cruz, to take over
We have no excuse reprisal the offices. There would appear to
the city government and administer be
for doing sO, and that
me to be but one reason which could given the famine situation.
is the humane duty of furnishing means to the relieve collection of customs on
If our naval authorities should take over
on the ground of dire
imports and exports these might be expended
necessity for the relief of the starving people."
were caused by Haitian guerrillas cutting
Since food shortages
of their military resistoff roads to marine-occupied cities as a part humanitarian argument
ance to American intervention, Lansing's
was doubly specious. United States sailors and marines landed
Three hundred thirty
reinforced by
Port-au-Prince on July 28, 1915, and were quickly
at
Guantânamo Bay, Cuba. As the New York
troops dispatched from
"The force being sent to Haiti is much
Times remarked on July 31,
of foreign interests."
larger than is necessary for mere protection sanctified by the spilling of
The intervention was immediately sailors, one of whom was a
American blood as two American killed in action. The two men
nephew of Samuel Gompers, were
and newspaper reports as
were described in American diplomatic President Wilson expressed
having been killed by Haitian snipers." these first casualties proved to
his personal condolences, but even
that was to be conbe lacking in the romantic battlefield pageantry military skirmishes in
spicuously absent in many of the American disclosed that there were no
Haiti. Subsequent military reports where the two sailors were
indications of enemy fire in the area shot in the night by rifle fire
killed and that they were accidentally Battalion, which was untrained
from their comrades in the Seaman
strain in unfamiliar surfor shore action and under severe nervous by the sound of conroundings." 12 The Americans were intimidated but there was no
in the city throughout the night,
stant firing
form of celebration at
danger since the firing was just a traditional
the fall of a tyrant."
spicuously absent in many of the American disclosed that there were no
Haiti. Subsequent military reports where the two sailors were
indications of enemy fire in the area shot in the night by rifle fire
killed and that they were accidentally Battalion, which was untrained
from their comrades in the Seaman
strain in unfamiliar surfor shore action and under severe nervous by the sound of conroundings." 12 The Americans were intimidated but there was no
in the city throughout the night,
stant firing
form of celebration at
danger since the firing was just a traditional
the fall of a tyrant." --- Page 86 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
that landed in Haiti were unMany of the American troops
conditions which
familiar with the abject poverty and unsanitary
of picthem. Port-au-Prince, with its background
now surrounded
of the most beautiful harbors in the
turesque mountains, was one
but first impressions on landing
world when viewed from the sea,
exotic adventure
One young marine, anticipating
were unfavorable.
described his first day ashore as follows:
in a tropical paradise, later
had turned into a pigsty. More than that,
It hurt, It stunk, Fairyland We could feel it as distinctly as we could smell
we were not welcome.
In the street were piles of evil-smelling
the rot along the gutters. .
Piles of mango seeds were heaped
offal. The stench hung over everything,
It was not merely that these,
in the middle of the highway, sour-smelling.
were rotting-the whole
mingled with banana peels and other garbage, class have the ugliest
of the working
prospect was flthy. . . Haitians
I somehow blamed them for the
feet in the world. In my bewilderment stood. We were all annoyed.
horrid things on which they
of the Haitians also tended to make things unpleasThe hostility
curfew patrols were forced
ant for the newly arrived marines. Night streets of Port-au-Prince in
to march warily down the middle of the
from
showered with household waste dropped
order to avoid being
darkened second-story windows." the invasion, both at Port-auOrganized military resistance to
the country where
Prince and at the other locations throughout Admiral Caperton, the
American troops were landed, was minimal. cabled Secretary of the
senior officer in charge of the intervention,
Navy Daniels and President Wilson:
intervention in affairs
a military
U.S. has now actually accomplished in Haiti and has existed for a
of another nation. Hostility exists now Serious hostile contacts have only
number of years against such action. military action which has given U.S.
been avoided by prompt and rapid
control before resistance has had time to organize."
military superiority of American
Faced with the overwhelming
to resist the intervenforces, those Haitians who were determined
bands.
tion took to the hills and there organized guerrilla authorities found that
At the time of the intervention American
charge of the intervention,
Navy Daniels and President Wilson:
intervention in affairs
a military
U.S. has now actually accomplished in Haiti and has existed for a
of another nation. Hostility exists now Serious hostile contacts have only
number of years against such action. military action which has given U.S.
been avoided by prompt and rapid
control before resistance has had time to organize."
military superiority of American
Faced with the overwhelming
to resist the intervenforces, those Haitians who were determined
bands.
tion took to the hills and there organized guerrilla authorities found that
At the time of the intervention American --- Page 87 ---
THE INTERVENTION
the general economic
Port-au-Prince,
situation, and especially the food
was disorganized. Under the
supply in
vasion, many additional economic
impact of military inpended. The situation was further functions were temporarily susrilla forces, erstwhile
complicated when Haitian
in
cacos, cut off the food
gueran attempt to exert
supplies to major cities
States, which assumed pressure on United States forces. The United
a measure of
tary control, was thus called
responsibility along with milipopulation of Port-au-Prince upon to provide relief for the destitute
could be restored.
until such time as the food
Secretary Daniels, assessing the
supply
ing to racial stereotypes of
Haitians accordinstead of viewing them Negroes in the Southern United States
about the effects that as a distinct foreign people, was
free relief might
skeptical
to President Wilson: "It is
have upon them, and wrote
visions because the Haitiens very dangerous to begin to supply prothe war and would quit work are like negroes in the South after
Government
entirely, deserting
undertakes to feed them.' >> 17
plantations if our
This wholesale misapplication of the
American historical experience with presumed lessons of white
of misinformation and
Negroes indicates the extent
of cognizant United States prejudice which typically clouded the minds
slur, Daniels
officials. Aside from the
was badly confused, since the
implicit racial
volved feeding the urban
problem in Haiti inpopulation of
over, there were no plantations in Haiti Port-au-Prince and, moreAmerican South during the Civil War comparable to those in the
apprehensions, navy doctors and medical era. In spite of Daniels'
work among "a large population of sick corpsmen undertook relief
people" in Port-au-Prince in August,
and practically starving
sonnel, aided by the American Red 1915,15 The navy medical perof $1,500 in January, 1916,
Cross, which contributed a fund
Haitians in Port-au-Prince
gave medical attention to indigent
to those who had been
and distributed food on a regular basis
was the
of investigated and certified as destitute. This
beginning a long series of constructive
projects originated by the navy medical
that humanitarian
throughout the occupation.
corps
was to continue
Shortly after intervening, the United States
treasury service to the
restored the Haitian
which had been deprived of American-controlled the
Banque Nationale,
service by the Haitian government
, 1916,
Cross, which contributed a fund
Haitians in Port-au-Prince
gave medical attention to indigent
to those who had been
and distributed food on a regular basis
was the
of investigated and certified as destitute. This
beginning a long series of constructive
projects originated by the navy medical
that humanitarian
throughout the occupation.
corps
was to continue
Shortly after intervening, the United States
treasury service to the
restored the Haitian
which had been deprived of American-controlled the
Banque Nationale,
service by the Haitian government --- Page 88 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
during a dispute earlier in the year, and
officers to supervise the collection of all assigned American naval
toms and financial adjustments
customs duties. These cusof United States
fulflled long-standing objectives
Haitian
diplomacy and resulted in effective control of the
customhouses government's purse strings. American officers who
and local government administration
took over
palled at the inefficiency and
were often aptutions. The marine officer who corruption characteristic of local instiJérémie audited the
took charge of the coastal town of
mayor's books and
graft. 19 A navy pay corps officer, under found evidence of extensive
authority over all port activities and
orders to assume "complete
found that customs facilities
coastwise trade" at Petit Goâve,
included
as weights to measure for duties." stones and pieces of iron used
landings United States forces
Within several weeks of the
agencies and
were in control of all
revenues in the coastal towns
governmental
trol of the occupied towns and
of Haiti. Military conaccording to the
cities varied in style and
personalities of local
emphasis
American authority was predominant. commanders, but in all cases
a veteran of other banana
The marine officer at Jérémie,
have the absolute
wars, remarked that "in Cuba we didn't
With
authority we had here."2
American forces in effective
tion turned to the problem of
control, the Wilson administrachinery through which the United developing suitable political maApparently little advance
States could govern the country.
lem, since both Wilson and consideration had been given to the probshould proceed. Both
Lansing were uncertain as to how
agreed on the necessity of
they
occupation but at the outset neither had
prolonged military
could be done within the framework any clear idea of how this
sixth day after the intervention,
of international law. On the
"not at all sure what we ought to Lansing do wrote Wilson that he was
Wilson replied that he too feared or what we legally can do."
authority to do what we
that "we have not the legal
States must send sufficient apparently ought to do" but that the United
and
troops to subordinate local
completely control the country.
authorities
Wilson insisted that "constitutional Excepting these irregularities,
maintained, but he did not
government" be established and
stitution should be
specify 22
that the existing Haitian Conterest the United respected. In keeping with the
States had in establishing order continuing inand stability in
to Lansing do wrote Wilson that he was
Wilson replied that he too feared or what we legally can do."
authority to do what we
that "we have not the legal
States must send sufficient apparently ought to do" but that the United
and
troops to subordinate local
completely control the country.
authorities
Wilson insisted that "constitutional Excepting these irregularities,
maintained, but he did not
government" be established and
stitution should be
specify 22
that the existing Haitian Conterest the United respected. In keeping with the
States had in establishing order continuing inand stability in --- Page 89 ---
THE INTERVENTION
control over
Wilson's plans were to retain military
the Caribbean,
Haitian
could be set up
Haiti until a strong and stable
government
under American auspices."
leaders in Haiti favored outright
Although American military administration decided to work
military government, the Wilson
including a Haitian
through existing Haitian political machinery,
executive. In deciding to set up a Haitian client-president,
chief
Wilson: "I do not see why it would not be as easy
Lansing wrote
as it is to control the
to control a government with a president officers." >9 24 The first important
Haitian Congress and administrative of Haiti was the selection of a
step in the political reconstruction military control of Port-au-Prince
suitable client-president. By taking
the election of Dr.
in late July the United States had prevented Haiti. Bobo headed the caco
Rosalvo Bobo as the new president of of Sam and was about to apthat
the downfall
the
army
precipitated of successful revolution by intimidating
propriate the rewards
him to the recently vacated presiHaitian legislature into electing
accordance with advice given
dency. Admiral Caperton, acting in
the election and
Haitian confidant, postponed
him by a prominent
the 1,500 caco troops who were demanding
took measures to disarm
adherents hung together for several
the election of Bobo." Bobo's
been told by Admiral
weeks, until he disbanded them after having forbid his candidacy if the
Caperton that the United States would
troops remained in the city."
accomplishment.
Dr. Bobo was a man of considerable personal medicine from the
had traveled widely, held degrees in law and
He
and London, and was fluent in many languages.
universities of Paris
Caperton's chief of staff who represented
Captain Edward L. Beach, with Bobo and who wrote a lengthy
the admiral in all dealings
commented that Bobo
chronicle describing the various negotiations, the
and needy sick
beloved in Haiti because
poor
"was greatly
his
and none of these ever
always had the first call on
services,
unbalbill from him, 99 but Beach noted that Bobo was
received a
"idealist and dreamer," was "utterly unsuited to
anced and, as an
had
been known to
President." 27 Moreover, Bobo
long
be Haiti's
of United States encroachthe State Department as an opponent
the McDonald railroad
ments in Haiti. In 1911 Bobo had opposed minister of the interior in 1914
and fig banana concessions, and as
"was greatly
his
and none of these ever
always had the first call on
services,
unbalbill from him, 99 but Beach noted that Bobo was
received a
"idealist and dreamer," was "utterly unsuited to
anced and, as an
had
been known to
President." 27 Moreover, Bobo
long
be Haiti's
of United States encroachthe State Department as an opponent
the McDonald railroad
ments in Haiti. In 1911 Bobo had opposed minister of the interior in 1914
and fig banana concessions, and as --- Page 90 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
American customs receiverhe had worked to thwart the proposed revolution against Sam was to
ship." The proclaimed object of his
American receivership." ,20
the "tremendous disgrace" of an
believed
prevent
liabilities, Caperton and Lansing
On top of all his other
Given these grave misgivthat Bobo was bordering on insanity." to look for an alternative
about Bobo," a the United States began
ings
candidate.
Admiral Caperton apIn seeking a suitable client-president, politicians: J- N. Leger,
proached three of Haiti's most distinguished minister to Washington;
who for twelve years had been Haitian
in
and
Solon Menos, who was the current minister Washington; with J. N. Leger,
F. D. Légitime. Each declined,
former president
as "Haiti's most distinguished
whom Captain Beach recommended
"I am for
>> peremptorily refusing with this explanation:
citizen,"
States; Haiti's president will have to accept
Haiti, not for the United
States and I propose to keep
directions and orders from the United defend Haiti's interests." 99 81
myself in a position where I will be able to referred to as "X" in CapCaperton's trusted Haitian confidant,
also refused to
chronicle and probably J. N. Leger,
tain Beach's
because of the ignominy of holding
form a provisional government 82
office under American auspices."
to associate
Faced with the reluctance of the foremost politicians
Sudre
Caperton turned to Philippe
themselves with the Occupation, Haitian Senate, who was eager to
Dartiguenave, president of the
his candidacy to
volunteer his services. Dartiguenave, in declaring States guarantee to
Beach, insisted only that the United
financial
Captain
elected. He agreed to United States
protect him if he were
and offered to cede Môle-Saintcontrol and customs receivership,
which the
recommending to Beach a plan by
Nicolas outright,
at the Môle before the election,
United States would land troops
later." In negotiating his
with a formal treaty of cession coming
Dartiguenave also
candidacy with United States representatives,
difficulties bemade specific commitments to settle outstanding Nationale and to
the Haitian government and the Banque
tween
similar to United States treatment
The ambivalent reaction to Bosch Bobo in is strikingly the 1960s. See John Bartlow Martin, Overof Dominican President Juan
Crisis from the Fall of Trujillo to the Civil War
taken by Events: The Dominican
(Garden City, N.Y., 1966).
troops
later." In negotiating his
with a formal treaty of cession coming
Dartiguenave also
candidacy with United States representatives,
difficulties bemade specific commitments to settle outstanding Nationale and to
the Haitian government and the Banque
tween
similar to United States treatment
The ambivalent reaction to Bosch Bobo in is strikingly the 1960s. See John Bartlow Martin, Overof Dominican President Juan
Crisis from the Fall of Trujillo to the Civil War
taken by Events: The Dominican
(Garden City, N.Y., 1966). --- Page 91 ---
THE INTERVENTION
by the Amerithe various claims made against the government
pay
can-owned National Railway."
and claimed to conDartiguenave headed a faction of legislators
from Capertrol the Haitian congress which, under strong pressure insisted on effective
made it clear that the United States
ton (who
Bobo's supporters, who
control), was to elect the new president. active in the interior of the councontrolled the guerrilla forces still
the Committee
and included the leading citizens who comprised
try
through which Caperton governed Port-au-Prince,
of Public Safety
Dartiguenave was threatwere still the dominant political group. if he did not withdraw his candiened with immediate assassination
marine bodyguard by
dacy; he was then provided with a nine-man
the Americans."
Bobo
emerged as the leading
With Dartiguenave and
having series of interviews with
candidates, Captain Beach conducted a Bobo's limitations as a longthem in order to select the better man.
were well known, but
time opponent of United States interests
trusted Haitian
Dartiguenave also had his drawbacks. Caperton's but preferred him to
confidant "X" did not think highly of Bobo,
"surrounded by
whom "X" characterized as being
candiDartiguenave
which accounts for his
grafters with whom he has grafted,
deteriorate with each
dacy." 36 Bobo, seeing his chances for selection concessions the United
passing day, desperately offered to make any in the series of interviews
States might demand, but Dartiguenave, favorable impression than did the
with Beach, made a much more
and
37 Admiral
temperamental Bobo, who became irate
impetuous. where Bobo
recommended Dartiguenave to Washington,
Caperton
with disfavor because of his anti-American backwas already viewed
"Allow election of President to take
ground, and Daniels replied, The U.S. prefers election of Dartiplace whenever Haitians wish.
Allen White that, "Of
Daniels later confessed to William
guenave. and I know that this was equivalent to America making
course, you President. >9 38
Dartiguenave
within the Wilson administration about
There were some qualms
employed by the United States in
the heavy-handed methods being "I confess that this method of
Haiti. Lansing wrote to Wilson:
the Haytien Capital, is high
negotiation, with our marines policing
sovereign rights and
handed. It does not meet my sense of a nation's
Haitians wish.
Allen White that, "Of
Daniels later confessed to William
guenave. and I know that this was equivalent to America making
course, you President. >9 38
Dartiguenave
within the Wilson administration about
There were some qualms
employed by the United States in
the heavy-handed methods being "I confess that this method of
Haiti. Lansing wrote to Wilson:
the Haytien Capital, is high
negotiation, with our marines policing
sovereign rights and
handed. It does not meet my sense of a nation's --- Page 92 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1984
exercise of force and an invasion of Haytien
is more or less an
independence. 99 39
was
of the Navy Daniels, known as an anti-imperialist,
Secretary
Cabinet officers for his role in the intervention.
chided by his fellow
Frank K. Lane, with a wink toward
Secretary of the Interior
Daniels at a Cabinet meeting as
President Wilson, addressed
and another colleague, referring
"Josephus the First, King of Haiti,"
"Will the canto the election of Dartiguenave, asked mockingly, in?" Daniels did
didate you and Lansing picked manage to squeeze Franklin D. Roosevelt,
the situation and later wrote
not appreciate
of the Navy in 1915, that "You know
who was Assistant Secretary forced to do in Haiti was a bitter pill for me,
that the things we were
policy that even hinted of
for I have always hated any foreign
imperialistic control."
1915, by the
Dartiguenave was elected president on August 12, of United
which convened under the protection
Haitian legislature, instead of under the protection of a revolutionary
States Marines
that
election "was
Daniels later stated
Dartiguenave's
caco army.
the choice of the mass of the Haitian people but
undoubtedly not
America was essential." 41
only of those who felt that intervention by thanked Caperton's chief
After his election Dartiguenave personally that Beach ride in the same car
of staff Captain Beach and insisted
Later Beach remarked that
with him in the inaugural procession. has repeatedly and publicly
"Since his election, he [Dartiguenave]
to do everything the
made known his intention, without reservation, who was subsequently
U.S. wishes." > Beach felt that Dartiguenave, American colony in Portnicknamed "The Cat" by members of the of Haiti could best be
honestly believed that the interests
au-Prince,
with the United States."
served by complete cooperation American authorities, the clientAs had been anticipated by
was unable to control
government established by Dartiguenave military support. Because
political unrest without direct American
and inuneasiness in Port-au-Prince
of this as well as increasing
and the American
against the government
flammatory propaganda
declared martial law on September
occupation, Admiral Caperton
election. e Along
3, 1915. less than a month after Dartiguenave's
was taken verbatim or copied from the
Much of the martial law proclamation Cruz, Mexico. Caperton to Daniels, Sept. 2,
same form as that used in 1914 at Vera
1915. FR; 1915, pp. 484-85.
political unrest without direct American
and inuneasiness in Port-au-Prince
of this as well as increasing
and the American
against the government
flammatory propaganda
declared martial law on September
occupation, Admiral Caperton
election. e Along
3, 1915. less than a month after Dartiguenave's
was taken verbatim or copied from the
Much of the martial law proclamation Cruz, Mexico. Caperton to Daniels, Sept. 2,
same form as that used in 1914 at Vera
1915. FR; 1915, pp. 484-85. --- Page 93 ---
THE INTERVENTION
of martial law, Caperton issued a contingent
with the declaration
stated:
censorship promulgation which
will not be interfered with, but license will
The freedom of the press
of false or incendiary propaganda
not be tolerated. The publishing United States or the Government of Haiti,
against the Government of the
obscene
letters
of any false, indecent, or
propaganda,
or the publishing
which tends to disturb the public peace
signed or unsigned, or matter courts."
will be dealt with by the military
political offenders were tried in
Martial law, by which Haitian continued in effect until the strikes
United States military courts, informed the Americans that the
and riots of 1929. Dartiguenave
facilitate the passing of
declaration of martial law would greatly
to legalize the
Haitian-American treaty that was
the proposed
occupation."
occupation, control of all customEven with effective military
client-presirevenues, and a handpicked
houses and governmental
felt it necessary to legalize the
dent, the Wilson administration
with the client-government
occupation by means of a formal treaty declaration by the United
in Haiti. This treaty, in effect a unilateral
solemn moral and
was to be cited throughout the 1920s as a
States,
the occupation. Immediately after
legal commitment to continue
instructed the American
the election of Dartiguenave, Lansing
that would incorporate
chargé at Port-au-Prince to negotiate a treaty unsuccessful negotiations
all the demands made by Bryan during the the United States took
which preceded the intervention. In addition,
and privileged
advantage of its greatly improved bargaining position to live under the
relationship with Dartiguenave, who continued concessions. Lansing
protection of a marine bodyguard, to exact new
the lines of the
wrote to Wilson that the new treaty was "along last July [1914].
which was sought to be negotiated a year ago
treaty
several alterations and additions covering the
It, of course, makes
and granting to this Government a
ground far more thoroughly
the
treaty proposed. >2 The
much more extensive control than
original
financial
included the appointment of an all-powerful
additions
of the United States, establishment of a
adviser by the president
settlement of
organized and officered by Americans,
constabulary and American control of public works."
foreign claims,
Wilson that the new treaty was "along last July [1914].
which was sought to be negotiated a year ago
treaty
several alterations and additions covering the
It, of course, makes
and granting to this Government a
ground far more thoroughly
the
treaty proposed. >2 The
much more extensive control than
original
financial
included the appointment of an all-powerful
additions
of the United States, establishment of a
adviser by the president
settlement of
organized and officered by Americans,
constabulary and American control of public works."
foreign claims, --- Page 94 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
American military force and the
Despite the presence of a strong
experienced difficooperation of President Dartiguenave, ratified Caperton by the Haitian legislaculties in getting the proposed treaty the
was allowed
the first two years of occupation,
ture which, during
patience and diplomacy were
to remain in existence. Caperton's
that the United States
tried to the utmost, and at times he thought and abandon efforts to
might have to set up a military government institutions." Part of the
work through established Haitian political
in Dartigueamong the legislators
difficulty was disappointment which had been unable to bestow offices
nave's client-government, because of American control over all reveand expend public funds
repeated pledges of a loan and
nue." More than this, Caperton's backed by the State Department.
American financial aid were not
up
had promised
for ratification of the treaty, Caperton
In pressing
financial embarrassment of the
funds to alleviate the desperate made allusions to a bright economic
Dartiguenave government and
to the State Defuture for the whole country." 48 Caperton's requests funds held by
partment for a loan and for the release of government denied. The AmerBanque Nationale were
the American-controlled advance of funds, saying: "I am convinced
ican chargé also urged an
its best efforts to secure ratification by
that the Government is using
hampered and ratification
Congress but its efforts are being seriously
>9 49
endangered by the withholding of the gourdes." bail out the Haitian
urgently recommended a loan to
Caperton
had
salaries and was suffering sinking
government, which
unpaid
"in educating counmoreover, had incurred expenses
prestige, and,
treaty. >9 He argued that unkept
try to realize necessity of ratifying
were weakening the posipromises made by the State Department and that "enemies of the
tion of the Dartiguenave government advantage of this apparent
United States and of the treaty are taking
in this matter." 99 50
American
is involved
lack of support. . . .
prestige had decided to withhold funds
For its part, the State Department of the treaty and advised Caperton
as a means of forcing ratification
of the Dartiguenave govand Chargé Davis that the embarrassment
of the treaty the
ernment would only be temporary." After passage be
until
maintained that a loan could not procured
State Department
between the Haitian governafter a settlement had been reached
the
loan for
Nationale. 52 In playing
proffered
ment and the Banque
50
American
is involved
lack of support. . . .
prestige had decided to withhold funds
For its part, the State Department of the treaty and advised Caperton
as a means of forcing ratification
of the Dartiguenave govand Chargé Davis that the embarrassment
of the treaty the
ernment would only be temporary." After passage be
until
maintained that a loan could not procured
State Department
between the Haitian governafter a settlement had been reached
the
loan for
Nationale. 52 In playing
proffered
ment and the Banque --- Page 95 ---
THE INTERVENTION
increasing the
worth Lansing, who earlier had suggested
all it was
"to avoid their being liable to graft
salaries of Haitian legislators
in his attitude
99 was apparently being more cynical
temptations,
toward Haitian politics than was Caperton."
by Caperton and
With the poor coordination in tactics employed of efforts to secure ratifiand the breakdown
the State Department
employed threats and intimidation
cation by persuasion, Caperton November, 1915, he asked Darwhich proved successful. In early senators hostile to the treaty SO that
tiguenave for the names of the
and a week later he relayed
personal pressure might be applied, Haitian Cabinet that
orders from Daniels to inform the
to defeat the treaty are rife, but are not believed.
Rumors of bribery
those who accept or give bribes will
However, should they prove true,
had been instructed to make the
be vigourously prosecuted. [Caperton clear to remove all opposition and
threat of prosecution] . . . sufficiently
to secure immediate ratification."
the Haitian Senate the next day, and went
The treaty was ratified by
action by the United States
into effect as a modus vivendi pending
and without debate
Senate, which ratified the treaty unanimously
in February, 1916."
the United States would aid Haiti in
The treaty provided that
Haitian finances on a firm basis.
economic development and establish
and
receiver of
financial adviser
general
An American-appointed
control over Haitian government ficustoms would have extensive
its customs duties or
and Haiti was forbidden to modify
nances,
without United States approval. The United
increase its public debt
and the
would
and officer a Haitian gendarmerie,
States
organize
to execute an arbitration protocol with
Haitian government agreed
of foreign claims. The treaty was
the United States for settlement from the date of exchange of ratificato remain in force for ten years
the
governwhich was May 3, 1916. Efforts by
Dartiguenave
tions,
in the drafting of the treaty were
ment to effectively participate
memorandum noted that "The
thwarted. A later State Department
it
that this treaty
Government attempted to make appear
Haitian
rather than dictated and suggested several
had been negotiated - but the department had insisted on its own
changes in phraseology,
phraseology. 56
The treaty was
the United States for settlement from the date of exchange of ratificato remain in force for ten years
the
governwhich was May 3, 1916. Efforts by
Dartiguenave
tions,
in the drafting of the treaty were
ment to effectively participate
memorandum noted that "The
thwarted. A later State Department
it
that this treaty
Government attempted to make appear
Haitian
rather than dictated and suggested several
had been negotiated - but the department had insisted on its own
changes in phraseology,
phraseology. 56 --- Page 96 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1984
UNITED
Beach, who had successfully comAdmiral Caperton and Captain
and
mission of forming a client-government
pleted their assigned
in 1916. Caperton had been the
procuring the treaty, left Haiti early
for a year and in this capacsenior officer in charge of the occupation rather than force. He took
ity had attempted to rule by persuasion and was personally liked by
great pains not to offend Haitian pride
referred to him as a
the Haitian elite. One Haitian contemporary dancer who held his
"beau vieillard svelte" and an indefatigable representative ashore,
partners tightly." Captain Beach, Caperton's calls at Haitian homes where
excellent French and paid social
spoke
the elite."
he made friends among
and consideration toward the
Caperton's policy of sympathy Daniels, who later stated that
by
Haitians was officially encouraged themselves as friendly brothers
he had ordered "all officers to regard
people. >> 59 Some
of the Haitians sent there to help these neighbor that it was desirable
effort was also made to instruct American troops that landed at Cap
The detachments
to make a good impression. Haitians with "utmost kindness and
Haîtien were ordered to treat
gestures toward
consideration" and to make friendly, if patronizing,
pat
advised that "A cheerful word, a friendly
them. The troops were
goes far to vitiate the sting
on the man's back or the horse's rump,
the natural feeling of
and will do much to change
of humiliation
>> 60 Cursing and shoving
resentment to one of respect and friendship." of
relations beIn general, the problem personal
the
were prohibited.
and Haitians was not acute at the time of
tween occupying forces
intervention.
the occupation entered
With the departure of Admiral Caperton who had been comColonel Littleton W. T. Waller,
a new phase.
Forces in Haiti and was now
mander of the Marine Expeditionary
succeeded Caperton
the commander of the First Marine Brigade, American Financial Adsenior United States officer in Haiti.
as the
viser Addison T. Ruan later remarked:
in Haiti, one of force and one of conciliation.
We have used two policies conciliation. He made personal friends of
Admiral Caperton employed with them. General Waller, seconded by
leading Haitians, by associating Butler, adopted a policy of force.s
Colonel (now Brigadier General)
. Waller,
a new phase.
Forces in Haiti and was now
mander of the Marine Expeditionary
succeeded Caperton
the commander of the First Marine Brigade, American Financial Adsenior United States officer in Haiti.
as the
viser Addison T. Ruan later remarked:
in Haiti, one of force and one of conciliation.
We have used two policies conciliation. He made personal friends of
Admiral Caperton employed with them. General Waller, seconded by
leading Haitians, by associating Butler, adopted a policy of force.s
Colonel (now Brigadier General) --- Page 97 ---
THE INTERVENTION
ashore, Waller had
subordinate in charge of marines
as
As Caperton's
with the admiral, whom he referred to
not gotten along well
up the men who are
99 complaining that, "Instead of backing
After
"insane,
he knifes them when they do well."
Caperworking for him,
"Since he left I have accomplished
ton's departure Waller asserted,
amount of work." 99 62
a great
recognized that tact was necessary
Colonel Waller apparently
cautioned his impulsive friend
in dealing with Haitians and once
not to be crude in his
Major Smedley D. Butler,
and subordinate,
"There is more harm done by such
treatment of the elite because,
months of work and labor.""
an act than can be remedied by
however, were difficult and
Waller's own relations with Haitians, of his racial prejudices, which
strained. This was largely because
to one Haitian supplicant
approached outright scorn. He referred saw" and wrote to his
"the blackest bluegum nigger you ever
in
as
A. Lejeune o that "Thes people are niggers
friend Colonel John
education and refinement. Down in their
spite of the thin varnish of
idle irresponsible people we
hearts they are just the same happy,
know of." 64
class, believed that
Waller disliked Haitians of the elite governing crook as any of the
client-President Dartiguenave was "as big a
the whole of
stated that "There is not an honest men in
others," and
His racial prejudice precluded cordial
Haiti of Haitian nationality."
level; he confided to Colonel
relations even at the ceremonial
Lejeune:
are some very fine looking,
They are real nigger and no mistake-There but
are real nigs beneath the
well educated polished men here and they Portsmouth would say if they
surface. What the people of Norfolk these coons-I do not know-All the
saw me bowing and scraping to formal
same I do not wish to be outdone in
politenes."
behavior and insulting directives Waller quickly
By undiplomatic
At one point Waller threatincurred the enmity of Dartiguenave. in hostile Port-au-Prince
ened to leave Dartiguenave unprotected
and sucthis time assistant to the commandant in Washington,
Lejeune was at
of the Marine Corps in 1920. Both
ceeded General George Barnett as commandant to brigadier general in 1916.
Lejeune and Waller were promoted
the
saw me bowing and scraping to formal
same I do not wish to be outdone in
politenes."
behavior and insulting directives Waller quickly
By undiplomatic
At one point Waller threatincurred the enmity of Dartiguenave. in hostile Port-au-Prince
ened to leave Dartiguenave unprotected
and sucthis time assistant to the commandant in Washington,
Lejeune was at
of the Marine Corps in 1920. Both
ceeded General George Barnett as commandant to brigadier general in 1916.
Lejeune and Waller were promoted --- Page 98 ---
1915-1934
OCCUPATION OF HAITI,
UNITED STATES
if
hours DartigueAmerican forces for twenty-four 66
by withdrawing
to the State Department*
between
nave continued to complain marines made a sharp distinetion accomWaller and many other
and the elite, whose cultural Waller
the masses of Haitian peasants Toward the end of his stay in Haiti, but not on
plishments they derided.
with the people
find myself intensely popular
>67 Major Smedley
said, *I with the ministers of the government." his father, Congressman
good terms shared this bias. In 1916 he wrote elite antagonist:
D. Butler
e concerning the death of an
Thomas S. Butler,"
attacked
of one of the prominent politicians The Gendarme
Last night the nephew sentries, Sring three shots at him. fist, thus endone of our Gendarme fnally blew a hole in him as big as there your is a big uproar
pursued him, and,
cockroach. This morning
shooting of this
ing the life of a miserable citizens over the "unjustifBable" will only get busy and
among the prominent However, if all the leaders
leader of society. will soon clean up this country."
attack sentries we
the
population into two categories: shoes.
Butler divided the Haitian and the 1 percent who wore the elite,
who went barefoot
but despised
99 percent affection for the poor peasants
a sense of humor
He expressed
observing that "Without
the shoe
whom he "took as a joke,"
those people, among Butler's
could not live in Haiti among of the Haitian elite, elite
you
and sensitivity
class." 69 Given the pride
Disdain for the educated imof humor was not appreciated.
for the uneducated,
sense
expressions of affection
racist values in
and complementary
contemporary
with
masses paralleled
sometimes
poverished peasant where Negroes were accepted, s while those who
the United States,
"stayed in their place;
to attack as
fondness, SO long as they or ambition were subject
exhibited wealth, education,
de-
"uppity niggers."
the elient-government was completely it and
the fact that
relations between
Despite American military protection, In mid-1916, Butler
pendent upon
team deteriorated rapidly.
the Waller-Butler Colonel Lejeune:
the Sixth and Seventh
wrote
member of Congress representing time he served as chair-
. Thomas S. Butler was from a 1897 to 1928. For part of this
districts of Pennsylvania Naval Affairs Subcommittee.
man of the
as
fondness, SO long as they or ambition were subject
exhibited wealth, education,
de-
"uppity niggers."
the elient-government was completely it and
the fact that
relations between
Despite American military protection, In mid-1916, Butler
pendent upon
team deteriorated rapidly.
the Waller-Butler Colonel Lejeune:
the Sixth and Seventh
wrote
member of Congress representing time he served as chair-
. Thomas S. Butler was from a 1897 to 1928. For part of this
districts of Pennsylvania Naval Affairs Subcommittee.
man of the --- Page 99 ---
THE INTERVENTION
what I think of them and if I
I have told these miserable ministers until March, 1918] they know exactly
stay here [Butler remained in Haiti deadline drawn between me and
what to expect. . . . There will be a
the British agents
the Haitiens, the same as there is in Egypt-between has lied to me two or three
and the Egyptians. . . . This Government trust it or
in it."0
times, and I do not intend again to
anybody
both Waller and Butler favored unimpaired military govIn fact,
arrangement with Dartiguenave.
ernment to the client-government
governor of Santo Domingo
Waller wrote the United States military in mind that a just military
that "There has never been any doubt my Haiti." 71
government is the method of controlling of the Waller-Butler period
The arrogant treatment characteristic some of those who had
served to disillusion many Haitians, even
for construcwelcomed the American intervention as an opportunity American
Dr. William W. Cumberland, the leading
tive reform.
observed that "I regret to say that
civilian official of a later period,
constant turmoil with the
some of the earlier authorities were in
99 Cumberland deHaitians, usually on racial and personal grounds." with about as little tact as
scribed Butler e as a "misfit" and "a man
some of us had the
could ever meet," and added that, "For years
>> 72
one
to heal up the scars which that gentleman left."
job of trying
that Nicaraguan mothers invoked the memory of
In 1921 the Nation reported
their children; the expression "Hush! Major
Butler when they wished to frighten been a maternal warning in Nicaragua for years.
Butler will get you" had allegedly 23, 1921), 278.
Natton CXII, No. 2903 (Feb. --- Page 100 ---
The Marines
Take
Charge
There had been little organized
of United States forces in July, 1915. military opposition to the landing
termined to resist the United States Those Haitians who were deinterior of the country where a number occupation of
withdrew into the
the revolution against President
caco armies, supporting
were already in the field. Sam and the candidacy of Dr. Bobo,
equipped
Subjugating these bands of
tive of the guerrillas was the original and continuing
poorly
marine forces in Haiti.
military objecCaco armies consisted of peasant soldiers
short-term military adventures
who were enlisted in
interior of Haiti, especially in the by wild regional military chiefs in the
regional chiefs, self-styled
and mountainous north. The
ticians who provided funds generals, and
were allied with urban poliAmerican intervention,
political leadership. Prior to the
hind the
cacos had provided the
numerous Haitian revolutions,
military punch beon behalf of successive
serving as mercenary armies
only with machetes and presidential obsolete candidates. They were armed
mobility and were able to
rifles, but possessed great tactical
pursued by superior forces. disappear A
into the countryside when
from an ordinary
caco soldier was
peasant once he had
indistinguishable
removed a small identifying red
discarded his weapon and
continued to be characterized
patch from his clothing. Cacos
simply as bandits in American military
the
hind the
cacos had provided the
numerous Haitian revolutions,
military punch beon behalf of successive
serving as mercenary armies
only with machetes and presidential obsolete candidates. They were armed
mobility and were able to
rifles, but possessed great tactical
pursued by superior forces. disappear A
into the countryside when
from an ordinary
caco soldier was
peasant once he had
indistinguishable
removed a small identifying red
discarded his weapon and
continued to be characterized
patch from his clothing. Cacos
simply as bandits in American military --- Page 101 ---
THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE
of the fact that caco efforts were eventually
reports, irrespective
political objective of driving
directed solely toward the nationalistic
the Americans into the sea. e
of American
While the marine landings and the establishment with ease, the
in the coastal cities were accomplished
authority
in the interior was complicated and diffcult.
problem of pacification remained loyal to exiled presidential candiNumerous caco bands
interfered with food supplies to Amerdate Dr. Rosalvo Bobo. Cacos
and imican-occupied coastal cities, raided marine encampments, of these bands was
peded railroad communications. Pacification the intervention. Thereachieved during the six months following
throughout the
with the establishment of marine outposts
after,
declined until the American forced-labor
interior, caco activities 1918 and the massive Haitian uprisings of
road-building program of
1918-19.
in 1915 was carried out by the compleThe initial pacification
to turn in their weapons, and by
mentary devices of bribing cacos
Of the two alternatives
forceful marine pursuit and extermination. and undertook negotiaAdmiral Caperton at first preferred bribery
Caperton
chiefs immediately after the intervention."
tions with caco
in Port-au-Prince by
managed to disarm Dr. Bobo's supporters
but the cacos in
threatening not to consider him for the presidency, after the Amerthe interior were more difficult to handle, especially Negotiations with
icans had definitely rejected Bobo's candidacy. entailed dickering
for surrender of troops and arms
the
caco generals
to be awarded as compensation, with
over the amount of money and Robin, at first demanding $200,000.
two leading generals, Zamor
out of the question and that the
Caperton stated that this sum was
to bleed the Amerwas "to a great extent an attempt
modest terms,
proposition number of chiefs eventually agreed to more
icans.". A
collected from the Haitian customs
and Caperton, dispensing moneys
purchased large
receivership on behalf of the client-government, bribes to caco generals. The
quantities of rifles and paid appropriate
of 596 rifles at $5
single transaction involved the purchase
largest the payment of $6,600 to three generals."
violated
each, plus
offers of bribes and others
Many cacos refused to accept
Duvalier outfitted his militia with red arma In the 1960s, President François as an appeal to Haitian nationalism.
bands reminiscent of caco insignia
the Haitian customs
and Caperton, dispensing moneys
purchased large
receivership on behalf of the client-government, bribes to caco generals. The
quantities of rifles and paid appropriate
of 596 rifles at $5
single transaction involved the purchase
largest the payment of $6,600 to three generals."
violated
each, plus
offers of bribes and others
Many cacos refused to accept
Duvalier outfitted his militia with red arma In the 1960s, President François as an appeal to Haitian nationalism.
bands reminiscent of caco insignia --- Page 102 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
chiefs and remained under arms. Those
agreements signed by their
were subjected to
who did not come to terms with the Americans indeed, marine
vigorous pursuit and decimation by marine patrols; the period of
hunt-and-kill operations were sustained throughout remarked that,
negotiations. In September, 1915, Admiral Caperton the north without
while he regretted not having been able to pacify
of greater
bloodshed, the "severe lesson" to the cacos might "prove them off
eventual settlement of affairs than buying
beneft in the
also had the advantage of
would have been." The military pressure negotiations by intimidating
acting as a stimulus to the surrender
alarmed Secretary of the
the cacos, but reports of Haitian casualties
offensive military
Daniels and eventually caused him to restrict
Navy
Daniels ordered that no offensive
operations. In early September
Washington, and in
action be undertaken without first consulting
was "strongly
November he informed Caperton that the department and that, "In view of
impressed with number of Haitians killed"
department desires
heavy losses to Haitians in recent engagement
further loss of
offensive to be suspended in order to prevent
your
life."*
skirmishes that had alarmed Daniels was the
One of the military
was notable because two
capture of Fort Rivière. This engagement
Smedley D. Butler,
participating marines, one of whom was Major of Honor for heroism."
were later awarded the Congressional Medal
of marine
the capture of Fort Rivière was typical
In other respects,
who were difficult to hunt down but
campaigns against the cacos, At the 1921 Senate Hearings on the
easily defeated once cornered.
Barnett, commandant of the
Occupation of Haiti, General George
about offensive
Marine Corps from 1914 to 1920, was questioned
operations against the cacos:
one was the capture of Fort Riviere.
GENERAL BARNETT: One particular
That was really quite an affair.
at the behest of Assistant Secretary of the Navy
a - The medals were awarded visited the site of Fort Rivière in January, 1917. RooseFranklin D. Roosevelt, who Butler's account of the battle, and noted in his travel
velt was much impressed by
had killed over 200 cacos at Fort Rivière,
diary that Butler and 18 companions casualty list reported 51 killed. Franklin D. Roosewhereas the official Marine Corps
unpublished travel diary; Roosevelt
velt, "Trip to Haiti and Santo Domingo, 1917,"
MSS, RG10, Box 155.
at the behest of Assistant Secretary of the Navy
a - The medals were awarded visited the site of Fort Rivière in January, 1917. RooseFranklin D. Roosevelt, who Butler's account of the battle, and noted in his travel
velt was much impressed by
had killed over 200 cacos at Fort Rivière,
diary that Butler and 18 companions casualty list reported 51 killed. Franklin D. Roosewhereas the official Marine Corps
unpublished travel diary; Roosevelt
velt, "Trip to Haiti and Santo Domingo, 1917,"
MSS, RG10, Box 155. --- Page 103 ---
THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE
the affair when there were 51 Haitians killed but no
QUESTION: That was
casualties on our side?
not well
BARNETT: It was quite an affair. The Haitians were
GENERAL
and fought to the best of their ability. [conarmed, but they stood up
report of the engagement] All
tinues, reading the field commander's the time
and Butler and
companies were in their position at
specified by five other companies.
Low's companies made the assault, supported minutes. Twenty-nine killed
Hand-to-hand conflict in the fort lasted ten fire from the automatics,
but all were killed by
and 22 jumped parapet,
blocked.
all avenues of escape being
in
fairly characteristic of the operations
QUESTION: Was that operation
the natives?
general conducted by our forces against
I should say that was a sample. They had a little
GENERAL BARNETT:
would have ordinarily, it being an old
better protection there than they
fort on a high mountain.
taken." One marine officer who took part in the
No prisoners were
the
American casualty was a man
engagement, recalling that
only rock and lost two teeth, remarked
who was struck in the face with a did not know what sights were
that "We were fighting a people who
their rifles and reached for
for, and in a tight spot they threw away
rocks." 6
marine patrols were generally
Caco attacks and ambushes against
tense moments in the
unsuccessful, although they provided some Butler's group of twentyearly days of campaigning. Major Smedley ambush, was terrifed by surseven marines, trapped in a nighttime their conch shells, but in
rounding cacos who blew incessantly on
superior marine firedaylight the Haitians were no match against wild after their devilish
Butler recalled that his men "went
of
power. hunted the Cacos like pigs, > killing about seventy-five
night and
Marine casualties in this
them on the day following the ambush." with Butler's group suffering
light,
campaign were characteristically field commander, Colonel Eli K.
only one man wounded. Butler's of the guerrillas and was pleased
Cole, had ordered vigorous pursuit "Butler I am glad to say, as he
with Butler's performance, stating: in the kind of work we have to
is a very good officer, particularly view, and that is that the only way
do in the mountains, takes my
of the place."*
to do the job is by a systematic cleaning up
seventy-five
night and
Marine casualties in this
them on the day following the ambush." with Butler's group suffering
light,
campaign were characteristically field commander, Colonel Eli K.
only one man wounded. Butler's of the guerrillas and was pleased
Cole, had ordered vigorous pursuit "Butler I am glad to say, as he
with Butler's performance, stating: in the kind of work we have to
is a very good officer, particularly view, and that is that the only way
do in the mountains, takes my
of the place."*
to do the job is by a systematic cleaning up --- Page 104 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
battlefeld and offered the
Faced with marine prowess on the
caco resistance
alternative of amnesty and reward for surrender, of
broke down in the fall of 1915. The first phase turned pacification next to
rapidly
completed, and the marines
had been successfully
military agency with which
the problem of developing a permanent the authority of the occuorder and institutionalize
to maintain
pation.
of September, 1915, provided that
The Haitian-American establish Treaty and officer a Haitian gendarmerie.
the United States would
native military
The practice of developing an American-controlled the United States in Puerto
force had previously been employed Gendarmerie by
was being organized
Rico and Cuba, and, while the Nacional were being set up under
Guardias
in Haiti, corresponding the other end of the island in the Dominican
American auspices on
were intended as
Republic and in Nicaragua. These constabularies
powerful to
centralized forces sufficiently
efficient, nonpartisan,
political regimes and to eliminate
ensure continuity of pro-American
revolutions. After Amerthe problem of instability caused by cyclical
and Nicarawithdrawal from Cuba, the Dominican Republic,
ican
became bulwarks of the enduring Batista,
gua, the constabularies
Trujillo, and Somoza dictatorships.
a branch of the
The Gendarmerie d'Haiti was administratively the force held official
and marines who officered
client-government,
while simultaneously
commissions from the Haitian government The first commandant of
retaining their rank in the Marine Corps.
D. Butler, who took
the organization was Marine Major Smedley the rank of Major
command in December, 1915, and assumed energetic direction
Gendarmerie d'Haiti. Under Butler's
General,
took shape and legally began to perform
the Gendarmerie rapidly
police functions in February, 1916. had to contend with was the reA major problem which Butler both for the Haitian rank and
cruitment of satisfactory personnel, Haitians, who were induced
file and for the American officer corps. month for privates to $25 per
to enlist by pay ranging from $10 per
uneducated and undermonth for top sergeants, were generally the recruits necessitated
nourished. Lack of physical stamina among health measures could
lower standards of military discipline until
found a sentry on
take effect. Butler remarked: "I have frequently
endarmerie rapidly
police functions in February, 1916. had to contend with was the reA major problem which Butler both for the Haitian rank and
cruitment of satisfactory personnel, Haitians, who were induced
file and for the American officer corps. month for privates to $25 per
to enlist by pay ranging from $10 per
uneducated and undermonth for top sergeants, were generally the recruits necessitated
nourished. Lack of physical stamina among health measures could
lower standards of military discipline until
found a sentry on
take effect. Butler remarked: "I have frequently --- Page 105 ---
THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE
building sound asleep, standing up
a post in front of an important face. That is not his fault. He was
with the sun shining in his
that 95
of them had blood
diseased. An examination showed
percent 92 9
diseases and 85 percent had intestinal worms." of recruits, the great
Educational deficiency also was characteristic classes. As was the
majority of whom came from the illiterate poorer members of the
across the border in the Dominican Republic,
case
class shunned service in the American constabulary,
educated upper
reluctance to collaborate with the
partly because of nationalistic of the low social status associated
Occupation and partly because
an officerwork. e Early attempts to set up
with subservient police
elite failed because of the difficandidate program for the Haitian because of elite hostility to the
culty in obtaining volunteers and
training. Elite volundemeaning aspects of American-style military resented having to
who became social outcasts by enlisting,
teers,
uniforms and refused to perform menial duties,
wear privates'
which were facets of American officer
such as grooming horses, effort to train ten elite officer-candidate
indoctrination. An initial
and, although infrequent atvolunteers in 1915 failed completely, there was no effective officer
tempts were made in subsequent years, of the Ecole Militaire in
training program until the establishment of Haitian officers for the
1928." Up to 1929 the predominant the source ranks. While such promotions
Gendarmerie was promotion from limited to the lowest officer ranks,
were relatively few in number and
of social mobility for lowerthey provided an important new avenue schooling within the Genclass Haitians, who received formal
darmerie."
when the Gendarmerie officer corps was
During the early years,
suitable marine volunteers was also
exclusively American, finding
resulted in a sevenfold inproblem. The war in Europe
a difficult
strength of the Marine Corps (from 9,968 in
crease in the enlisted
d'Haiti" at the
"Gendarmerie d'Haiti" was changed to "Garde
e In 1927 the name client-President Louis Borno in order to remove the social stigma F. B.
request of Haitian
word "gendarmerie." 99 SD 838.00/2376, C. Gross to
associated with the French
Kellogg, Aug. 22, 1927. similar difficulties in recruiting officer candidates in the
For a description of
Goldwert, The Constabulary in the Dominican ReDominican Republic, see Marvin and Legacy of United States Intervention (Gainespublic and Nicaragua: of Florida Press, Progeny 1962), pp. 10-11.
ville: Univ.
name client-President Louis Borno in order to remove the social stigma F. B.
request of Haitian
word "gendarmerie." 99 SD 838.00/2376, C. Gross to
associated with the French
Kellogg, Aug. 22, 1927. similar difficulties in recruiting officer candidates in the
For a description of
Goldwert, The Constabulary in the Dominican ReDominican Republic, see Marvin and Legacy of United States Intervention (Gainespublic and Nicaragua: of Florida Press, Progeny 1962), pp. 10-11.
ville: Univ. --- Page 106 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
and flled the ranks with inex1915 to 72,370 in December, 1918)
of the Gendarmerie
perienced men. In 1918 the commandant "suitable material" for the
characterized the problem of finding
99 12 Even with the improvement
Gendarmerie officer corps as "grave."
the officer corps of
in personnel after the European war was over,
In 1922 Major
the Gendarmerie remained less than satisfactory.
"We have
General Wendell C. Neville wrote the State Department: were due to
found that most of our troubles in Haiti, for instance,
commissions in the Gendarmerie,
noncommissioned officers given
amenable to our laws
notwithstanding the fact that they were
this,
caliber of marines
- 13 In order to attract the best
and regulations."
officers, volunteers were offered extra
for duty as Gendarmerie
of higher rank.
remuneration and the privileges
the Gendarmerie were marine
Most of the American officers in commissions by the Haitian
enlisted men who were given special continued to receive their regular
client-government. All Americans and in addition received pay from
pay and allowances as marines
between the Marine Corps
the Haitian government. Rank equations marine
serving as
varied, with some
privates
and the Gendarmerie
while some marine sergeants were only
captains in the Gendarmerie
Pay also varied according to
second lieutenants in the Cendarmerie.
rank/pay
allowances and such. A representative
differences in family
follows: 14
roster, dating from December, 1918,
Pay
Rank
U.S.° Haitian Govt.
Marine
Cendarmerie
$3,000
LT COL
MAJ GEN
$5,814
1,800
1st SGT
CAPT :
1,500 1,308
1,800
SGT
CAPT
1,296
1,200
CPL
1st LT
1,100
PVT
2nd LT
e includes allowances.
that the Haitian government
President Wilson vetoed a suggestion United States for the regular
also be required to reimburse the
salaries of marines serving in Haiti."
in the Gendarmerie
The extra pay received by marines serving the duty could be hard
since
was by no means entirely gratuitous, of deprivation at isolated
and often involved prolonged periods
GT
CAPT :
1,500 1,308
1,800
SGT
CAPT
1,296
1,200
CPL
1st LT
1,100
PVT
2nd LT
e includes allowances.
that the Haitian government
President Wilson vetoed a suggestion United States for the regular
also be required to reimburse the
salaries of marines serving in Haiti."
in the Gendarmerie
The extra pay received by marines serving the duty could be hard
since
was by no means entirely gratuitous, of deprivation at isolated
and often involved prolonged periods --- Page 107 ---
THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE
Butler, commandant of the Gendarmerie,
interior posts. Smedley
in the payment of the bonus
complained about an initial delay
money to his officers, stating:
officers performing duty in the "bushes" are cerNon-commisioned for these wretched people, and I consider it an
tainly working like dogs
Dartiguenave client-government) is
outrage that this Government [the and let them get their pay. Serving
not required to sign this agreement,
with Haitians
with Marines is a matter of duty with us-an honor-serving
different, and these men should be paid."
is entirely
and rank benefits, volunteers for Gendarmerie
In addition to pay
leave
year outside Haiti. Other
service received forty-five days'
per
volunteers were
in attracting
factors, by no means inconsequential, and the opportunity to be of help
the exotic character of the duty
Butler expressed his
to the Haitians. Gendarmerie Commandant
attitude toward duty in Haiti:
embued with the fact that we were trustees of a huge estate
We were all
viewpoint; that was the viewpoint
that belonged to minors. That was my were our wards and that we were
I personally took, that the Haitians make for them a rich and productive
endeavoring to develop and
property."
his perspective on the American occuYears later, Butler changed the marines had been used as "a
pation of Haiti and stated that and that he had personally been
glorified bill-collecting agency" he had refused to cooperate with New
"canned" in Haiti because
not what he was saying at the
York banking interests, but this was
marine officers for
he
the Gendarmerie. In recruiting
time organized
to sympathy for Haiti and emGendarmerie duty Butler appealed
phasized Haiti's need of American help."
of American
Gendarmerie rapidly became the instrument
The
First Marine Brigade remained as a
authority in Haiti. The separate Port-au-Prince and Cap Haitien but
substantial garrison force in
in times of
force to back up the Gendarmerie
acted as a reserve
governing of the country was the
crisis. The ordinary, day-to-day officers, who were omnipotent in
responsibility of the Gendarmerie Commander Eli K. Cole reported
their assigned localities. Brigade
in 1917:
Butler appealed
phasized Haiti's need of American help."
of American
Gendarmerie rapidly became the instrument
The
First Marine Brigade remained as a
authority in Haiti. The separate Port-au-Prince and Cap Haitien but
substantial garrison force in
in times of
force to back up the Gendarmerie
acted as a reserve
governing of the country was the
crisis. The ordinary, day-to-day officers, who were omnipotent in
responsibility of the Gendarmerie Commander Eli K. Cole reported
their assigned localities. Brigade
in 1917: --- Page 108 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
the White Officers of the Gendarmerie d'Haiti
For a long time to come
which we can rely for honest and
will form the only organization on of the
my policy has been
efficient administration in all parts
country: by utilizing in all possible
the country
to extend our influence throughout believe that through them we are going to
ways their activities, and I
and physical) over the people
be able to get a very strong hold (moral
of this country."
officers exercised authority over most local governGendarmerie
matters and, according to personal inclinations,
mental and military
One young American
dominated their respective regions completely.
blanc e white father) by the Haitians
officer was referred to as papa them in turn as mon fils (my son)
in his district, and he addressed
Gendarmerie officer, a marine
Another
and ma fille (my daughter
of the island of La Gonave in
sergeant, became the crowned king
Dr. S. G. Inman, obPort-au-Prince Bay." An American civilian,
served:
who becomes an officer in the gendarmerie finds himself
The marine
unlimited power, in the district where he serves.
clothed with practically
all civil and criminal cases, settling everyHe is the judge of practically murder. He is paymaster for all funds
thing from a family fight to a
he is ex-officio director of the
expended by the national government, teachers. He controls the mayor and
schools, inasmuch as he pays the
without his o.k. As collector
city council, since they can spend no funds
individuals in the comof taxes he exercises a strong influence on all
munity.
was powerful also at the national
Under Butler, the Gendarmerie
in 1917 as traveling comlevel. An American who went to Haiti
Franklin D. Roosevelt
panion to Assistant Secretary of the Navy
comes pretty near
noted that "the actual running of the Government colonels and majors." 99 28
being vested in General Butler and his young
effective military
of the Gendarmerie as an
The development
health and illiteracy of the Haitian
force, made difficult by the poor
barrier. Few marines
recruits, was complicated by the language Haitian Creole. The Engknew French and fewer still understood
limited to the marchof Haitian gendarmes was
lish comprehension
racial connotation in Haiti corre-
. The term "blanc" came to have a disparaging " but this does not necessarily apply in the
sponding to the American term "nigger,
above case.
and his young
effective military
of the Gendarmerie as an
The development
health and illiteracy of the Haitian
force, made difficult by the poor
barrier. Few marines
recruits, was complicated by the language Haitian Creole. The Engknew French and fewer still understood
limited to the marchof Haitian gendarmes was
lish comprehension
racial connotation in Haiti corre-
. The term "blanc" came to have a disparaging " but this does not necessarily apply in the
sponding to the American term "nigger,
above case. --- Page 109 ---
THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE
barked out by their marine drillmasters. The resulting
ing commands
of the Gendarmerie were of little conseweaknesses and failings
by the major caco uprisings
quence until the force was challenged
along with the
the Gendarmerie,
of 1918-19. Prior to these uprisings,
easy tasks of supthe relatively
First Marine Brigade, performed Dartiguenave and maintaining
pressing plots against client-President activities during the period of
security against possible German World War I.
United States involvement in
and important consequences
The European war had immediate
intervention in 1915
in Haiti. A primary purpose of the American threat of German encroachhad been to counteract the presumed curtail German influence were
American efforts to
ment. Early
United States declared war against Germany
intensified after the
of German submarines and espionage
in April, 1917, after which fear and the marines on the alert until
activities kept the Gendarmerie 1918. By means of wartime conthe end of the war in November, of German nationals, along with
fiscation of property and internment
and effectively
deportations, the United States deliberately
compostwar
interests from participation in Haitian
eliminated German
for the United
merce. The war thus served as a perfect opportunity
States to supplant its leading rival in Haiti. there were approxiAt the time of the American intervention Cermano-Haitian wives and
mately 210 Germans in Haiti, including
about 50 Amerchildren of German nationals, while there were only
realizicans." The German element was hostile to the intervention, was now at
business of financing revolutions
ing that the profitable
would discriminate against them in
an end and that the Americans
of the occupation,
and politics. From the very beginning
commerce
that local Germans were intriguing against
Americans suspected
them.""
Waller linked Germans to the first
Marine Brigade Commander
in early 1916,
serious attempt to assassinate President Dartiguenave the "German menace in the
while the New York Herald, bemoaning
fomenting revolution in
Caribbean, 9? contended that Germans were
Haiti:
the natives in the mountains and in the
The German scheme is to arm
in the event President
coast cities and bring about a general uprising threat to resign the Presidency.
Dartiguenave does not make good his
that local Germans were intriguing against
Americans suspected
them.""
Waller linked Germans to the first
Marine Brigade Commander
in early 1916,
serious attempt to assassinate President Dartiguenave the "German menace in the
while the New York Herald, bemoaning
fomenting revolution in
Caribbean, 9? contended that Germans were
Haiti:
the natives in the mountains and in the
The German scheme is to arm
in the event President
coast cities and bring about a general uprising threat to resign the Presidency.
Dartiguenave does not make good his --- Page 110 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
man who is in opposition to DarThose German interests control every brains of the rebellious faction in
tiguenave and are supplying the
Congress."
established" that
The Herald stated that "the fact was definitely
for arms and
in New York City
German financiers were negotiating At about this time the War Departammunition to be used in Haiti.
dispatch about a mysterious Japanese
ment received an alarming
to be headed for Haiti
agent, J. A. Ichicawa, who was reported United States intelligence,
posing as a rice merchant. According to
insurrechad
been involved in anti-American
Ichicawa
previously
to overthrow Dartiguetions in the Philippines and might attempt coaling station."" Specunave in Haiti in order to procure a Japanese became more clearly focused
lation about enemy intrigues in Haiti
into the war against
and pertinent after United States entrance
Germany.
declaration of war the marine commander in
After the American
to maintain close surveillance over
Haiti instructed the Gendarmerie interfere with them unless they
all Germans in Haiti but not directly
Commander
to the United States. Brigade
did something prejudicial
and March, 1917, that he
Cole reported to Washington in February secret instructions and
was sure that local Germans were receiving to block us where ever posthat they were "in secret ways trying
German raider will land
sible," current rumors having it that "a
destroy the Amerforces near Leogane, march on Port-au-Prince,
Cole's
the Germans in control, and then re-embark."s
icans, put
threat varied from time to time.
personal estimation of the German local Germans would cause no
In early April, 1917, he wrote that the
could do here would
trouble because "they realize that what they if
mix in the affair
not affect the outcome of the war .
but they all their property.
they are going to stand in a great danger of losing
that
after Cole wrote this, his intelligence sources reported
Shortly
bombings, riots, and assassination attempts
Germans were plotting
American officers."
on prominent
surveillance of German firms,
All the investigations of rumors,
work failed to turn
censoring of letters, and other counterespionage intrigue." 80 The most substanup much concrete evidence of German resident Germans was a message
tive indication of complicity by
they realize that what they if
mix in the affair
not affect the outcome of the war .
but they all their property.
they are going to stand in a great danger of losing
that
after Cole wrote this, his intelligence sources reported
Shortly
bombings, riots, and assassination attempts
Germans were plotting
American officers."
on prominent
surveillance of German firms,
All the investigations of rumors,
work failed to turn
censoring of letters, and other counterespionage intrigue." 80 The most substanup much concrete evidence of German resident Germans was a message
tive indication of complicity by --- Page 111 ---
THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE
to the imperial chanfrom the German minister in Port-au-Prince to the State Department
cellor that was intercepted and turned over
1917, apparently
ambassador at Washington in June,
by the British obtained in much the same way as the famous Zimmerhaving been
1917.° The message from the German
mann telegram of January, dated March 31, 1917, told of propaminister at Port-au-Prince,
local German newspaper, L'Echo,
ganda work undertaken by a
Haiti and told the
which was distributed gratuitously throughout It is doubtful that this propa-
"truth" about the German war cause."
to much. There is no
ganda effort, if it existed at all, amounted
the strict Amermention of L'Echo in American reports, and, given and the careful surcensorship of all local newspapers
ican press
activities, it is not likely that such a paper
veillance of German
Local Germans were incarcerated for
would have gone unnoticed.
work, as, for ininnocuous activities than propaganda
much more
1918, when two Germans were sentenced
stance, the case in January,
to leave Haiti in a small boat, with
to five years in prison for trying
and the eastern United
allegedly incriminating maps of England Ocean in their baggage. In
States and a small chart of the Atlantic
residents resulted in
another incident, close surveillance of German the German national
that several of them had sung
the disclosure
of Herr Lucas on Christmas Eve, 1917; Lucas
anthem at the home
court if the incithreatened with trial before a marine provost
was
dent was ever repeated."
machinations by the German
A more dramatic threat than possible
German raiders and
the
of enemy attacks by
colony was
possibility
career officers stationed in Haiti
submarines. Most of the marine
were frustrated at
to take part in the European war and
were eager
Gendarmerie Commandant Butler, for instance,
being stuck in Haiti.
in Haiti was "becoming more and
wrote in June, 1917, that duty the knowledge that I am not to be
more detestable every day and makes it even more unbearable." 38
allowed to fight for my country,
to engage the Cerman
Under the circumstances any opportunity welcome. The American officer
war machine in Haiti was more than
1917,
the German diplomatic code and, after February,
. The British had broken
with copies of certain transatlantic radio messages
provided the State Department chancery in Berlin and the various German diplomatic
emanating from the imperial Tuchman, The Zimmermann Telegram (New York:
posts in Latin America. Barbara
published in 1958.
Dell Publishing Co., 1965), orlginally
and makes it even more unbearable." 38
allowed to fight for my country,
to engage the Cerman
Under the circumstances any opportunity welcome. The American officer
war machine in Haiti was more than
1917,
the German diplomatic code and, after February,
. The British had broken
with copies of certain transatlantic radio messages
provided the State Department chancery in Berlin and the various German diplomatic
emanating from the imperial Tuchman, The Zimmermann Telegram (New York:
posts in Latin America. Barbara
published in 1958.
Dell Publishing Co., 1965), orlginally --- Page 112 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
in the south of Haiti wrote that "war
commanding the Gendarmerie
when marines were ordered
fever" took hold in Haiti in early 1917, search of enemy submarine
to make coastal reconnaissances General in Cole e felt that no German
bases." Brigade Commander
harbor and
raider would risk being bottled up in Port-au-Prince
yet
of submarine bases was "almost infinitesimal,"
that the danger
in the war against Germany and recomCole was eager to do his part
for Haiti. Cole once reported an
mended elaborate defense measures Montreal had been sunk in
unverified rumor that the French ship
convoyed by two fishing
Port-au-Prince Bay by a German submarine defense." In fact, the
smacks, and requested 5-inch guns for harbor of coffee at Petit Goâve, was
Montreal, which had taken on a load
Marine defense measures
sunk while nearing the coast of France." for resistance by United
against German invasion included plans and for the arrest of all local
States troops and the Gendarmerie American businessmen were
Germans appearing on a blacklist. force. No submarine bases
organized and drilled as a civil defense
invasions.
and there were no German
were ever discovered
facet of the anti-German campaign in
By far the most significant
and the internment
Haiti was the sequestration of German property the declaration of war
German merchants following
of leading
client-government in July,
against Germany by the Dartiguenave Butler had long since urged that
1918. Gendarmerie Commandant
scheme to drive the German
the State Department "cook up' some the
season' for Gerinfluence out of this country, now that
'open control this island."
is
as after the war we should
mans upon us,
of war would permit us to take most
Butler noted that "A declaration
holdings here. 99 87 The
step we saw fit towards the German
war
any
refused to declare
against
Haitian legislature had originally referred to as "a deliberate slap at
Germany, in what General Cole
the permanent dissoluthe U.S.," but this obstacle was removed by Shortly after the formal
tion of the legislature in June, 1917."
was sequestered,
declaration of war in 1918 all German property and all remaining memtwenty-two leading Germans were interned,
and report daily
were required to register
bers of the German colony
at local Gendarmerie offices."
the outbreak of the
as a colonel, was promoted at
e Cole, previously mentioned with Butler, Waller, and other career marines.
European war along
"a deliberate slap at
Germany, in what General Cole
the permanent dissoluthe U.S.," but this obstacle was removed by Shortly after the formal
tion of the legislature in June, 1917."
was sequestered,
declaration of war in 1918 all German property and all remaining memtwenty-two leading Germans were interned,
and report daily
were required to register
bers of the German colony
at local Gendarmerie offices."
the outbreak of the
as a colonel, was promoted at
e Cole, previously mentioned with Butler, Waller, and other career marines.
European war along --- Page 113 ---
THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE
enterprises had been impinged
German property and commercial
The American military
upon long before outright sequestration. British blacklist of sixteen
commander received and enforced a
blacklist of twelve
Haitian firms in August, 1917, and an American entered the war
1917. Even before America
firms in December,
German interests from participaGeneral Cole took steps to expunge
(HASCO). Under
tion in the Haitian-American Sugar Company later shifted its busifrom American authorities, HASCO
HASCO
pressure
German bank to the American bank."
ness from a private
public utilities at Port-au-Prince.
also took over the German-owned
commandeered, inThe German ice plant at Port-au-Prince between was the marines and
cidentally causing considerable friction
of ammonia during the
local residents because, despite the shortage officers' families conwar and resulting curtailment of production,
civilians went
tinued to be supplied while Haitians and American in July, 1918,
without. 41 The sequestration of German property
by the
serious blow to German interests, was ameliorated
while a
the move, had transferred their
fact that some Germans, anticipating
property to Haitians to avoid sequestration. Germans lasted from
The internment of the twenty-two leading internment camp in PortJuly, 1918, to July, 1919. Conditions at the the
were treated
comfortable and
prisoners
au-Prince were generally did not end with the return of peace.
humanely, but their ordeal
the signing of the GermanoUpon their release in 1919 following
complete freetreaty, the prisoners were not given
Haitian peace
and required to continue
dom but were restricted to Port-au-Prince The United States was deterreporting daily to the Gendarmerie. be allowed to regain their former
mined that the Germans should not
John H. Russell, brigade
position in Haitian commerce. Colonel 1918 to 1922 and subsequently
commander most of the time from
1919: "The recent war has
American high commissioner, remarked in of this class [Germans]
for the elimination
afforded an opportunity
and it is hoped that by this time this
from commerce and politics,
the Germans were released from
has been effected." At the time
McCarty Little earnestly
internment, Brigade Commander Louis
to Germany
to Washington that they be repatriated
recommended
if allowed to remain shortly
for fear that "they will undoubtedly
position in Haitian commerce. Colonel 1918 to 1922 and subsequently
commander most of the time from
1919: "The recent war has
American high commissioner, remarked in of this class [Germans]
for the elimination
afforded an opportunity
and it is hoped that by this time this
from commerce and politics,
the Germans were released from
has been effected." At the time
McCarty Little earnestly
internment, Brigade Commander Louis
to Germany
to Washington that they be repatriated
recommended
if allowed to remain shortly
for fear that "they will undoubtedly --- Page 114 ---
OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED STATES
the
island to the exclusion of present
all the business of this
control native enterprise:" 48
of the brigade in late
budding
who resumed command
deported, and
Colonel Russell,
that the Germans be hastily
gov1919, was "most anxious" had been issued by the Dartiguenave
1920, orders
Germans." Deported
by January, the
of ffty leading to return to Haiti
ernment for
deportation
not
comto sign agreements
brigade
Germans were required permission by the marine immigration
unless granted specific took steps to restrict new German
line
mander. Russell also
whereby the Dutch steamship to Gerby making an arrangement with Port-au-Prince refused passage consul at Amconnecting Amsterdam
visaed by the Haitian
from
mans, regardless of passports
had first been obtained well
sterdam, unless special permission Russell stated that "Haiti now that
Russell. In December, 1920, and I am strongly of the opinion s> 45 The
cleared of them (Germans] to return except in special cases." that perthey should not be allowed in this policy, with the proviso immiState Department colluded be denied to "bona fide German the
mission to enter Haiti not will contribute to the prosperity of
who settling in Haiti
46 Russell made the subsegrants and commercial development "bona fide" and which were
Republic decisions on which Germans were never did regain a promiquent
interests; Germans
dangerous to American commerce and politics.
position
nent place in Haitian
created their strong commercial
the
Germans had originally
women and thus circumventing
Haitian
The Americans,
in Haiti by marrying prohibition of alien landownership. the way for Amerlong-standing
device, sought to open
clause
rejecting this circuitous by striking the alien landholding break with past
ican economic penetration Constitution. This involved a major
the
from the Haitian
encroachments and preserve of Haiti's
Haitian efforts to prevent outside foreign exploitation. Every one
had
national patrimony from the time of the American intervention
constitutions up to
official, writing
sixteen
A State Department of foreign landprohibited alien landownership. American legalization
summarized the
in 1927,
ownership as follows:
beneficial to Haiti and
was to be
come
It was obvious that if our occupation that foreign capital should
further her progress it was necessary
past
ican economic penetration Constitution. This involved a major
the
from the Haitian
encroachments and preserve of Haiti's
Haitian efforts to prevent outside foreign exploitation. Every one
had
national patrimony from the time of the American intervention
constitutions up to
official, writing
sixteen
A State Department of foreign landprohibited alien landownership. American legalization
summarized the
in 1927,
ownership as follows:
beneficial to Haiti and
was to be
come
It was obvious that if our occupation that foreign capital should
further her progress it was necessary --- Page 115 ---
THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE
new industries and stimulate agricultural
to Haiti, in order to establish Americans could hardly be expected to put
production in that country.
enterprises in Haiti if
their money into plantations and big agricultural which their money was to
they could not themselves own the land on Government caused the probe spent. For this reason the United States
to be omitted from
the ownership of land by foreigners
vision prohibiting
The United States did use
the new [1918] Constitution of Haiti. . Constitution adopted by the
rather high handed methods to get the
people of Haiti."?
the "most important change"
In drafting the new Constitution,
submitted by the
made by the State Department in the proposals officials in Haiti was
and the American
Haitian client-government
for alien landthe striking of a five-year residence unfair requirement advantage to the Gerownership which "would have given
who would have been
the only ones
mans who were approximately, D 48
resident in Haiti for five years.
of both chambers of the
In 1917 a National Assembly, consisting consider the adoption of the
Haitian legislature, was convened to
to the Constitution
constitution. According
new Americansponsored
the National Assembly could alter a
of 1889, then in effect, only
The Haitian legislature,
constitution or replace it with a new one.
demonclient-government, had repeatedly
unlike the Dartiguenave
by protesting against
strated its political vitality and independence The 1917 National Assembly
and frustrating American designs.
constitution. Instead, the
refused to pass the American-sponsored constitution of its own, and
Assembly drafted a new anti-American
were dramatin the
of passing this when proceedings
was
process
Smedley Butler, who read a dissolution
ically interrupted by Major
Butler observed privately
decree signed by President Dartiguenave. that the Gendarmerie
that the Assembly had become "so impudent effected
genuinely
had to dissolve them, which dissolution was
by
did
methods." The obstreperous Haitian legislature
Marine Corps until after the strikes and riots of 1929.
not sit again
the same letter that he would later give his correspondent, dise Butler added in
A. Mcllhenny, a "mouth to ear account of this
future Financial Adviser John for fear the Department of State might get hold of
solution, am afraid to write it, censors." 99 Butler to McIlhenny, June 23, 1917; The
this letter by means of the
MARCORPS MUS.
Smedley Darlington Butler Papers,
." The obstreperous Haitian legislature
Marine Corps until after the strikes and riots of 1929.
not sit again
the same letter that he would later give his correspondent, dise Butler added in
A. Mcllhenny, a "mouth to ear account of this
future Financial Adviser John for fear the Department of State might get hold of
solution, am afraid to write it, censors." 99 Butler to McIlhenny, June 23, 1917; The
this letter by means of the
MARCORPS MUS.
Smedley Darlington Butler Papers, --- Page 116 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
achieved by the
The dissolution of the legislature was nominally
who
client-President Dartiguenave, but Dartiguenave,
action of
become recalcitrant by this time, had been
was himself beginning to
American authorities had
browbeaten by Butler." In any case, if
did not
to dissolve the Assembly by force Dartiguenave
agreed
minister reported to Lansing:
cooperate. The American
and opposed to the best
the Assembly was in every way reactionary article permitting foreign ownerinterests of Haiti, refusing to adopt any and when matters in the Assemship of land in any manner whatsoever, decided in a conference held at
bly had proceeded thus far . . it was
from passing such
the Assembly
the legation on June 18 . . . to prevent if occasion demanded it, prefera Constitution by causing its dissolution, if
by order of the Comably by a Presidential Decree, but necessary
mander of the Occupation."
of Wilson's high regard for
A few days later Lansing, perhaps wary the
that "You will
constitutional procedure, wrote
president
correct
Government is wholly responsible for the
observe that the Haitian
think that it is
of the National Assembly. . e . I
recent dissolving
of Haiti to work out this problem which
wise to allow the President
in the island." 61 Scruples about
is largely due to German residents
disregarded in the subconstitutional procedures were completely
promulgation of the new Constitution.
sequent
was left with little room for political
President Dartiguenave dissolution of the National Assembly, which
maneuvering after the
resistance to the Americans and had
had served as a bulwark of
position. General Cole
allowed Dartiguenave to attempt a middle the dissolution of the
reported: "There is no question but what
over the PresiNational Assembly has given us an absolute power whatever we demand
dent and has put us in such a position that
completely." 62
him-this he has promised
will have to be executed by
to his earlier attitude of complete
Dartiguenave quickly reverted
that the American-sponsored
cooperation and himself suggested
According to a later State
constitution be adopted by a plebiscite. States would have "greatly
Department memorandum, the United
the new constitution
preferred" having the National Assembly certain pass that new elections
Haitian law, but it was
as required by
hostile assembly, sO the department authorwould result in another
that "The people casting
ized the extralegal plebiscite, realizing
him-this he has promised
will have to be executed by
to his earlier attitude of complete
Dartiguenave quickly reverted
that the American-sponsored
cooperation and himself suggested
According to a later State
constitution be adopted by a plebiscite. States would have "greatly
Department memorandum, the United
the new constitution
preferred" having the National Assembly certain pass that new elections
Haitian law, but it was
as required by
hostile assembly, sO the department authorwould result in another
that "The people casting
ized the extralegal plebiscite, realizing --- Page 117 ---
THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE
ignorant in most cases of what they
ballots would be 97% illiterate,
for." 58
were voting
constitution was held in June, 1918, and
The plebiscite on the new
of 98,225 in favor as against
it passed by the overwhelming majority
by the GenThe plebiscite was closely supervised
the
768 opposed."
and distributed the ballots. Prior to
darmerie, which ran the polls
issued instructions
election the commandant of the Gendarmerie of
meetings, paid for out Gendarmerie
that barbecues and popular
for the constitution, and that the
funds, be held to drum up support
be
for the
of forced-labor road building suspended
American system
Gendarmerie officers were also
week preceding the election. District
who publicly
of the constitution
ordered to arrest any opponents
lopsided results
their views. 55 Because of the suspiciously
no
expressed
in which 67 out of 96 polling places reported
of the plebiscite,
commander felt compelled to write
negative votes at all, the marine
while there was
e He explained that,
a special report to Washington.
the impressive victory
enthusiasm for the new constitution,
no great
did not vote rather than by
was caused by the fact that opponents
from conteminterference in the election." In fact, judging
marine
less than 5 percent of the population
porary population estimates, Years later Josephus Daniels wrote his
participated in the plebiscite.
then President Franklin D.
former Assistant Secretary of the Navy,
of that Constitution of
Roosevelt, that "I never did wholly approve
in the light of
had a hand in framing. . . I expect,
Haiti you
the necessity of denying even a semexperience, we both regret
control of Haiti." 67
blance of self-determination in our
the desired provision
Constitution contained, of course,
The new
Other features were
foreigners the right to own property.
granting
of State, appointed by the client-president,
the creation of a Council
until the elected legislature was
to perform all legislative functions
devoid of favoritism. Smedley Butler
0 Marine-controlled elections were not always
as follows: "The opposition
described a marine-sponsored election in it Nicaragua became necessary to elect our man to
candidates were declared bandits when
liked the fellow; : . the
office. Our candidates always win. In one found election who nobody would vote for the proper candidistrict was canvassed, and 400 were was given five minutes beforehand, the 400
date. Notice of the opening of the polls when
had voted, in about two hours, the
voters were assembled in a line and "The they Hate of Haiti," Literary Digest, CIII,
polls were closed." Butler quoted in New York Herald Tribune, Dec. 7, 1929, p. 11,
No. 12 (Dec. 21, 1929), 6-7. Also made by Butler in a speech in Pittsburgh on Dec. 5,
referring to the above statement
1929.
, and 400 were was given five minutes beforehand, the 400
date. Notice of the opening of the polls when
had voted, in about two hours, the
voters were assembled in a line and "The they Hate of Haiti," Literary Digest, CIII,
polls were closed." Butler quoted in New York Herald Tribune, Dec. 7, 1929, p. 11,
No. 12 (Dec. 21, 1929), 6-7. Also made by Butler in a speech in Pittsburgh on Dec. 5,
referring to the above statement
1929. --- Page 118 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF
HAITI, 1915-1934
reconstituted. Legislative elections would be
numbered year" to be determined
held in "an evenability of
by the president. The irremovjudges was suspended for a six-month period
promulgation of the Constitution. In a
following
the United States military
Special Article, all acts of
Constitution of 1918 served occupation were validated." In sum, the
tional position of both the to consolidate the legal and constituIt also presumably laid Occupation and the
the bases from which client-goverment.
forth proceed along the enlightened
Haiti would hencetionalism.
paths of Wilsonian constituWhile the political
marines
machinery was thus being strengthened, the
of the Gendarmerie simultaneously were enhancing the military
and the marine
effectiveness
sive road-building program. At the brigade by means of an extention the only roads
time of the American intervenroads, which had fallen connecting major towns were the old French
modern vehicles. The
into disrepair and were impassable to
"This condition,
commandant of the Gendarmerie noted that
the attention
principally from a military
of American Marine officers
viewpoint, early drew
were hindered and sometimes defeated whose military movements
Lacking adequate funds for
by the deplorable roads." 99 59
cause of the fiscal
a major road-building program bepauperage of the
cans revived an 1864 Haitian law, client-government, the Ameriwhich peasants were
discovered by Smedley Butler, by
lieu of
required to perform labor on local
paying a road tax. This system,
roads in
historical roots in the unpaid labor known as the corvée, had its
their feudal lords and was
which French peasants owed
by the British
strikingly similar to the corvée employed
and 1890s. In Haiti occupation the to dredge canals in Egypt in the 1880s
impressive network of roads corvée resulted in the construction of an
est achievement
connecting major towns, with the
being a 170-mile unpaved
greatau-Prince and the northern center of
highway between Porthowever, resented the forced
Cap Haitien. The peasants,
soon developed into a full-scale labor, and resistance to the corvée
Washington, Butler, who
revolt. In response to praise from
ant Secretary of the
masterminded the system, wrote to AssistNavy Roosevelt that "It would
many questions as to how we
not do to ask too
The corvée
accomplish this work. P 60
was inherently offensive to Haitian
peasants, who
-mile unpaved
greatau-Prince and the northern center of
highway between Porthowever, resented the forced
Cap Haitien. The peasants,
soon developed into a full-scale labor, and resistance to the corvée
Washington, Butler, who
revolt. In response to praise from
ant Secretary of the
masterminded the system, wrote to AssistNavy Roosevelt that "It would
many questions as to how we
not do to ask too
The corvée
accomplish this work. P 60
was inherently offensive to Haitian
peasants, who --- Page 119 ---
THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE
small landholders and feared the
prized their independence hands as of white men. As the system became
return of slavery at the
In 1920
resistance increased proportionally.
ridden with abuses,
of Santo Domingo and
Admiral H. S. Knapp, the military governor
to Secretary of the
commander in Haiti, reported
the administrative
to be undeniable" that Haitians had
Navy Daniels that "it appears their home districts, had been kept
been forced to work outside of
marched to and from their
at work under guard, and had "been
kept under
bound
The corvée gangs were always
work
together."a
practiced brutality on
Gendarmerie guard, and native gendarmes
upset62 The roping together of workers was especially
their charges."
since it recalled legends of French colonial
ting to the peasants,
slave gangs.
the corvée was officially abolished in
Because of rising hostility,
August proclamation inAugust, 1918. The brigade commander's
formed the citizens:
to a stop to further bloodshed. . . . The Corvee
The time has come put
Work on the road is entirely voluntary
has been done away with entirely. workmen will be free to come and go
and will be paid for daily. The
committed by native or Ameriwhen it pleases them. . Any injustices
Officials and justice
should be reported to American Military
can officials
will be done and the offender punished."
commander, Colonel Russell, decided on
The succeeding brigade the corvée had been a "source of continual
his arrival that, while
it, this would not be
trouble" and it was desirable to discontinue
had been
feasible until "certain roads, needed for military purposes, the corvée was
>64 A second and final order abolishing
opened up.
issued in October, 1918.
the corvée was continued illegally in
Despite official termination,
of Haiti by district marine comthe northern and central regions who denied continuation of the
mander Major Clarke H. Wells,
This mountainous region had
corvée in his reports to headquarters."
and was the area where
been the traditional center of caco activity
to military
construction was most difficult and most important
road
became the center of the 1918-19 caco uprising and
accessibility. It
atrocities were committed. In
the region in which most confirmed General Albertus W. Catlin,
early 1919, a new brigade commander,
illegally in
Despite official termination,
of Haiti by district marine comthe northern and central regions who denied continuation of the
mander Major Clarke H. Wells,
This mountainous region had
corvée in his reports to headquarters."
and was the area where
been the traditional center of caco activity
to military
construction was most difficult and most important
road
became the center of the 1918-19 caco uprising and
accessibility. It
atrocities were committed. In
the region in which most confirmed General Albertus W. Catlin,
early 1919, a new brigade commander, --- Page 120 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF
HAITI, 1915-1934
personally investigated rumors of
central Haiti, found the corvée still in Gendarmerie malevolence in
depopulated, and ordered all
existence and the countryside
area to cease because of
patrolling 66 by gendarmes in the Hinche
Hooker,
brutality. Lieutenant Colonel Richard C.
conducting a special investigation ordered
ported that the corvée was responsible for
by Catlin, reinterior and that "indiscriminate
a "reign of terror" in the
had caused the local
strong-arm work being pulled off"
Gendarmerie.
peasants to hide out in the hills for fear of
Hooker noted that he "got the
the
officers higher up were approving these
impression that the
situation in that whole district
methods," and that "The
After his investigation
is, to say the least, out of hand." 67
commander
General Catlin relieved the
and caused the commandant of the
district marine
a general order forbidding the
Gendarmerie to issue
why the order
killing of Haitian
was issued, the Gendarmerie prisoners. Asked
stated, "it is a strong tradition in the
commandant later
offense is followed by the issuance of military service that every
else to do the same thing. >> 68
an order forbidding every one
The corvée and associated brutality
against the Occupation. At
instigated a massive
one point the formidable
uprising
Charlemagne Peralte
caco leader
north and vowed to drive organized the
a provisional government in the
thousand troops. Brigade
Americans into the sea with his several
had 2,000 "bandits" under Commander Russell estimated that Peralte
Peralte earlier claimed
his command in the fall of 1919, while
Whatever the actual to have had 30,000 to 40,000 followers. 69
number of
intense guerrilla warfare in Haiti, combatants, with
1919 was a year of
tics listing 1,861 Haitians killed in
official Marine Corps statisfor the first five years of the
that year out of a total of 2,250
Peralte's force
occupation. 70 Colonel Russell
as armed mostly with machetes,
described
pistols, and 200 or 300 rifles, and noted
knives, pikes, a few
of ammunition, using "our
that they were very short
piece of goatskin on a string ammunition around and the Krag by tying a
Charlemagne himself
the base of the cartridge. 99 71
was eventually killed
guised as blacks who sneaked into his
by two marines, disIn an attempt to demoralize the
camp at night and shot him.
photographs of Charlemagne's guerrillas, the marines disseminated
ping him up SO that he looked body, like but made the mistake of propChrist on the cross. The photo-
pikes, a few
of ammunition, using "our
that they were very short
piece of goatskin on a string ammunition around and the Krag by tying a
Charlemagne himself
the base of the cartridge. 99 71
was eventually killed
guised as blacks who sneaked into his
by two marines, disIn an attempt to demoralize the
camp at night and shot him.
photographs of Charlemagne's guerrillas, the marines disseminated
ping him up SO that he looked body, like but made the mistake of propChrist on the cross. The photo- --- Page 121 ---
THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE
source of inspiration to Haitian nagraph became a continuing
insurrection declined after
tionalists. Nevertheless, the 1919
shattered in an unsuccessCharlemagne's death and was ultimately
ful direct attack on Port-au-Prince.
and unsophisticated in the
The cacos though poorly equipped
than a match for the
techniques of modern warfare, were more Frederick M. Wise, who
infant Gendarmerie. Lieutenant Colonel
1919, found the force
took command of the Gendarmerie in July,
and later
with low morale and inferior equipment,
in bad shape,
had discouraged target
recalled: "I discovered that my predecessors to teach the native how
practice on the theory that it was dangerous
us!" 72
to shoot. Some day they might possibly turn back against to the period when
This failure to train the gendarmes dated Waller, who once rethe marines were commanded by Colonel with a gun. " 73 The quesmarked that "you can never trust a nigger their Haitian subordinates
tion of how far Americans could trust
and necessarily SO
remained a problem at all levels of the occupation, force.
was ultimately based on
since the relationship
of the Gendarmerie, the marine brigade
Given the unreliability
revolt and, in early 1919, itself
was called upon to put down the caco
marked superiority
reinforcements. The marines enjoyed
aerial
required
and training. They even had
supover the cacos in weaponry
for the first recorded instance
port, with the cacos serving as targets
1919. Cacos would be
air-ground combat, in March,
of coordinated
in the bush and then have bombs dropped
surrounded by marines
and abandon their protective
in their midst, causing them to panic
the
General
cover. 74 At the 1921 Senate Hearings on
Occupation, Corps from 1914 to
George Barnett, commandant of the Marine contrast in Haitian as
1920, was asked to comment on the the striking first five years of the occuopposed to marine casualties during Barnett, 2,250 Haitians were
According to a report made by
pation.
o The general replied:
killed as against 14 or 16 marines.
Daniels that 3,250 Haitians had been
e Earlier, Barnett had reported Barnett to Secretary stated that the true figure was 2,250, and
killed. At the Senate Hearings, had been caused by an error in addition. Marine Corps
that the 1,000 mistake that the original 3,250 figure was correct. Month-by-month casualty Haitians
records indicate
from March, 1919, to November, 1920, total 3,071 Barreports for the period Daniels, Sept. 18, 1920; NA, RG80, File No. 26283-3725:9.
killed. Barnett to
1922, 433-34. "Election and Bandit Data" file,
nett testimony; Senate Hearings, Box 30.
MARCORPS HQ Haiti MSS,
addition. Marine Corps
that the 1,000 mistake that the original 3,250 figure was correct. Month-by-month casualty Haitians
records indicate
from March, 1919, to November, 1920, total 3,071 Barreports for the period Daniels, Sept. 18, 1920; NA, RG80, File No. 26283-3725:9.
killed. Barnett to
1922, 433-34. "Election and Bandit Data" file,
nett testimony; Senate Hearings, Box 30.
MARCORPS HQ Haiti MSS, --- Page 122 ---
1915-1934
OCCUPATION OF HAITI,
UNITED STATES
many
There were a great
like it was in the Philippines. today and so-called Cacos
It was largely there who would be friends
to distinguish one from
natives down
uniform, and it was hard
but they
tomorrow. They had no not well armed. They were brave, with machine
the other, and they were well-armed troops, especially would be
would have no show against natural to suppose that the contrast killed in compariguns, and it is perfectly
great number should be
marked and that a very
very
of white people killed."
son with the number
the
statistics in Haiti were extraordinary; been 25 to 1.70
Even so, the casualty Philippine insurrection had
this,
kill ratio during the
advantages enjoyed by the marines,
and degrading
Despite the overwhelming wars, was a frustrating
like most repressive guerrilla pursuing forces.
the
for the superior,
frustrations encountered by
experience the difficulties and
the almost unbearable living
Considering
down elusive cacos,
against
marines in hunting
and American racial prejudices
the
conditions in the brush, inevitable that the marines allowed
s 77
it was almost
and that a number of atrocities
"gooks," civilized warfare to lapse
Hearings are
rules of
The records of the 1921 Senate of the evidence was
were committed. atrocity stories, but much
proved."
replete with detailed
could be legally
with
and relatively few allegations
deal mainly
hearsay Marine Corps records and investigations which was apparently
Relevant
killing of prisoners,
Gendarmerie
the problem of illegal Haiti in 1919. One American
estiwidespread in northern
detail of 3,000 Haitians,
who had commanded a corvée
that there were at least
officer,
reports and rumors
an investimated from aggregate and Major T. C. Turner concluded
400 illegal executions, in 1919 by stating:
gation undertaken
part of this year
stationed in Haiti during the early that both marines and
Almost everyone
knowledge of the fact
to any witnesses
seemed to have some prisoners. It was very difficult get they were all
gendarmes were killing in the opinion of the undersigned,
to testify directly as,
equally culpable."
in the GendarClarke H. Wells, a colonel in late 1918 and
Turner felt that Major the District of the North
had
merie who commanded for the killings and that subordinates
early 1919, was responsible
by stating:
gation undertaken
part of this year
stationed in Haiti during the early that both marines and
Almost everyone
knowledge of the fact
to any witnesses
seemed to have some prisoners. It was very difficult get they were all
gendarmes were killing in the opinion of the undersigned,
to testify directly as,
equally culpable."
in the GendarClarke H. Wells, a colonel in late 1918 and
Turner felt that Major the District of the North
had
merie who commanded for the killings and that subordinates
early 1919, was responsible --- Page 123 ---
THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE
his orders. Marine Corps Commandant John A.
simply obeyed
Daniels in 1920 that there was specific evidence
Lejeune reported to
continuance of the corvée
that Wells had knowledge of the illegal
to "bump
that he had given orders to his subordinates
in his district,
kill all
cacos rather than bring
and to
suspected
off" caco prisoners
had ordered his juniors to suppress reports
them in, and that Wells
district. General Lejeune recomof unfavorable conditions in the
court-martial, but marine
mended that Wells be tried by general
build a concrete case,
investigations had been undertaken too late to
of evicourt-martial charges were withdrawn for insufficiency
and
noted that there was evidence that Lieutenant
dence. Lejeune also
commandant of the Gendarmerie,
Colonel Alexander S. Williams, of
but, again, there was
also had knowledge of the killing prisoners
insufficient evidence for a court-martial." of brutality can be gained
A good indication of the actual extent
order issued to the
between the lines of a confidential
by reading
Commander in October, 1919:
marines in Haiti by the Brigade
commander has had brought to his attention an alleged the
1. The brigade
in Haiti to the effect that in
charge against marines and gendarmes bandits have been summarily shot without
past prisoners and wounded in the field have declared and carried on
trial. Furthermore, that troops
season, " where care is not taken to
what is commonly known as "open
are bandits or "good
determine whether or not the natives encountered burned merely because
citizens" and where houses have been ruthlessly otherwise destroyed.
they were unoccupied and native property
man of the Marine
2. Such action on the part of any officer or enlisted smirch upon the
belief; and if true, would be a terrible
Corps is beyond record of the corps, which we all hold SO dear."
unblemished
to all marines in Haiti, with the
This order was promulgated would be read to each new marine as he
additional proviso that it
order and the explicit references to
arrived. The severe tone of the
that the problems discussed
various types of misdeeds are evidence
were real and widespread. noted that "There were unquestionably
Secretary Daniels later
and some of the marines which
some things done by the gendarmerie could have been more distressed
deserved punishment and nobody
Corps is beyond record of the corps, which we all hold SO dear."
unblemished
to all marines in Haiti, with the
This order was promulgated would be read to each new marine as he
additional proviso that it
order and the explicit references to
arrived. The severe tone of the
that the problems discussed
various types of misdeeds are evidence
were real and widespread. noted that "There were unquestionably
Secretary Daniels later
and some of the marines which
some things done by the gendarmerie could have been more distressed
deserved punishment and nobody --- Page 124 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
than President Wilson and myself."s2 Efforts
prosecute offenders were, however, foiled. to investigate and
records related to the
Certain Gendarmerie
appeared. 88 Daniels' order investigation for
of atrocities mysteriously diswas subverted by the assistant a full investigation in August, 1920,
with the approval of
adjutant general of the Marine Corps
Daniels
Major General Commandant
remarked that this "stunned" him and George Barnett;
Barnett on the carpet, 84 Civilian control
caused him to call
Navy Department was
over the marines within the
tion muddled
eroding as the lame-duck Wilson administraCommandant through its last months in power. In November,
John A. Lejeune informed Daniels that
1920,
completed investigation by Brigade
a report of a
March, 1920, "was never received,
Commander Russell, dated
a fact which was not discovered being apparently lost in the mail,"
patched a court of inquiry, headed until September. 85 Daniels disHenry T. Mayo, to Haiti in the fall by of Caribbean veteran Admiral
sulted in the disclosure of
1920. This investigation reall of which, by
only a small number of isolated atrocities,
by previous suspicious coincidence, had already been
general courts-martial." While the
prosecuted
Haiti, it conspicuously neglected to call
Mayo court was in
dant of the Gendarmerie,
as a witness the commanwho was familiar with
Lieutenant Colonel Frederick M. Wise,
and had let it be known "rough stuff" that had gone on in the interior
oath I was
that "If they put me on the stand
going to tell the truth." 87
under
Despite efforts to minimize the atrocities and
aspects of the occupation became
killings, the brutal
United States with the
a major national issue in the
presidential campaign, of inadvertent a 1919 letter publication, during the 1920
mandant Barnett had ordered
in which Marine Corps Com-
"indiscriminate
the commander in Haiti to
killing of natives." 2 88 In this
stop the
Colonel Russell that "The court-martial
letter Barnett wrote
of a native prisoner
of one private for the
showed
brought out a statement his
killing
me that practically
by
counsel which
gone on for some time.' s> 89 This indiscriminate letter
killing of natives has
cratic vice-presidential candidate and earlier assertions by Demohad a hand in
Franklin D. Roosevelt that he had
the 1918 Constitution running several Caribbean republics and had
of Haiti were exploited by
written
Republican candi-
88 In this
stop the
Colonel Russell that "The court-martial
letter Barnett wrote
of a native prisoner
of one private for the
showed
brought out a statement his
killing
me that practically
by
counsel which
gone on for some time.' s> 89 This indiscriminate letter
killing of natives has
cratic vice-presidential candidate and earlier assertions by Demohad a hand in
Franklin D. Roosevelt that he had
the 1918 Constitution running several Caribbean republics and had
of Haiti were exploited by
written
Republican candi- --- Page 125 ---
THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE
date Warren Harding, who used the episodes to denounce the
Wilson administration. The publicity engendered by the 1920 presidential campaign resulted in a series of journalistic exposés and a
reassessment of the Occupation, culminating in the 1921 Senate
Inquiry and the subsequent reorganization of the Occupation by the
Republicans. --- Page 126 ---
Reorganization
and
Rationalization
Under the Wilson
European war, the administration, which was preoccupied with the
tion from Washington. occupation of Haiti received little positive direcsituation during the The only high-level appraisal of the Haitian
Secretary of the war years was a 1917 visit to Haiti by Assistant
Navy Franklin D.
more than give an unqualified
Roosevelt. Roosevelt did little
engage in ceremonial
endorsement to marine activities,
functions, and
vestment in Haiti for his own personal investigate possibilities of inpolicy
enrichment. Major
Constitution developments were limited to the passing of the American
of 1918 and to a twenty-year
new Haitian
treaty; both these moves were
extension of the 1915
in the legal sense and to
designed to legitimize the
With the end of
open the way for American occupation
the
investments.
no longer necessary to European war, the military occupation was
safeguard American
over, Wilson was faced with the
strategic interests; morein his championing the
of embarrassing contradiction implicit
Peace Conference while rights small nations at the 1919 Versailles
over Haiti. Wilson tried simultaneously to withdraw maintaining military control
in 1919, but found that this
American troops from Haiti
were tied down
was impossible because the
American
by a major guerrilla war. Instead of marines
military commitment, the Wilson
reducing
obliged to reinforce the marines in Haiti,
administration was
acknowledge the need for
the military occupation was
safeguard American
over, Wilson was faced with the
strategic interests; morein his championing the
of embarrassing contradiction implicit
Peace Conference while rights small nations at the 1919 Versailles
over Haiti. Wilson tried simultaneously to withdraw maintaining military control
in 1919, but found that this
American troops from Haiti
were tied down
was impossible because the
American
by a major guerrilla war. Instead of marines
military commitment, the Wilson
reducing
obliged to reinforce the marines in Haiti,
administration was
acknowledge the need for --- Page 127 ---
REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION
and come to terms with the administrative
a prolonged occupation, characterized the occupation from the outset.
confusion that had
were dropped when the
Possible efforts to reorganize the occupation
the 1920 presidenHaitian situation became a political issue during silenced internal crititial election campaign, a development which of
generated
within the administration. As a result publicity
cism
the United States Senate sent a
during the election campaign,
in 1921. This Senate
special committee to investigate the occupation
the occurecommended that the United States reorganize
Inquiry to eliminate confusion and inefficiency.
pation
of 1921-22 featured centralization
The sequent reorganization in the person of an all-powerful
and consolidation of authority
Haitian finances
American high commissioner. In related moves, Nationale to the
by the transfer of the Banque
were reorganized
City Bank and by a 1922 loan which
exclusive control of National
France in the hands of Amerconsolidated Haiti's external debt to
the Occupaican creditors. Following the 1921-22 reorganization, institution capable of
tion emerged as a static, internally disciplined
developefficiently sitting on Haiti. There were few spectacular strikes and riots of
in American policy until the
ments or changes
1929.
administration had neglected Haiti during the
That the Wilson
intervention in 1915 is
immediately following the American
to the
years
given the more pressing problems attendant
not surprising,
received scant
in
1 For the same reason the occupation
war Europe.
the fact that the
notice in the United States, as indicated by
no
public
Index for the years 1917 and 1918 contains
New York Times
discussions on the direction and purentries for Haiti. High-level
and the marines in Haiti were left
pose of the occupation were rare, lack of
from Washington
largely to their own devices. This
guidance who usually resented
reached the stage where the marines in Haiti,
complained that they were being iginterference from civilians,
Commander Eli K. Cole wrote
nored. In December, 1917, Brigade
unfortunate, from my point
to his immediate superior that "It is very
as to the policy that
of view, that I have absolutely no knowledge to Haiti." 2 Cole's supeGovernment desires to follow in regard
our
reporting to the Navy Department
rior endorsed the complaint by
lack of
from Washington
largely to their own devices. This
guidance who usually resented
reached the stage where the marines in Haiti,
complained that they were being iginterference from civilians,
Commander Eli K. Cole wrote
nored. In December, 1917, Brigade
unfortunate, from my point
to his immediate superior that "It is very
as to the policy that
of view, that I have absolutely no knowledge to Haiti." 2 Cole's supeGovernment desires to follow in regard
our
reporting to the Navy Department
rior endorsed the complaint by --- Page 128 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
felt by General Cole." The departthat he shared "the uncertainty
from subordinate officers by
ment responded to these criticisms
blasting them for "the
weakly trying to shift the blame on them,
conditions
of, and at intervals the lack of reports, regarding
Washscarcity
them to be more diligent in keeping
in Haiti," and ordering
direction from Washington remained
ington informed.* Positive
minimal until the end of the war.
D. Roosevelt's January,
Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin Roosevelt's visit, in style and
1917, visit did not alter this situation."
when the occupation
substance, was characteristic of the early years Daniels later wrote
enclave. Secretary of the Navy
was a military
of inspection (it was one of pleasant advenRoosevelt that "Your trip
actual
to the President and the Navy Department
ture too) gave
6 In fact, Roosevelt's endorsement of
knowledge of the situation." that the Haitian elient-government
the marines and recommendation
with in favor of unimcivilian officials be dispensed
and American
little more than a reiteration of
peded military government were had been saying all along.'
what the marine commanders
to official cereRoosevelt's main efforts in Haiti were devoted
honored
which client-President Dartiguenave was
monies, during
United States Caribbean Fleet,
by a naval salute from the assembled
investment in Haiti.
and to the exploration of prospects for personal impression on the Haitian
The official ceremonies made a favorable observance of protocol,
elite largely because of Roosevelt's careful of French in reading
his disregard of the color line, and his use effort to extend formal
Roosevelt made an especial
formal speeches.
Dartiguenave, as when he stepped
courtesies to client-President
after Gendaraside and insisted that Dartiguenave take precedence the president by
Commandant Smedley Butler had grabbed
of
merie
him from entering a limousine ahead
the collar and prevented
of protocol by Roosevelt and
Roosevelt. e The elaborate observance corresponding private sentihis party was not always backed by diary that his friend and
ments. Roosevelt recorded in his travel of New Orleans, who later
traveling companion, John A. McIlhenny
to
of the Gendarmerie was nominally subordinate
- Butler, who as commandant
in the observance of protocol; while
President Dartiguenave, was not Butler SO serupulous slept in a bed while the president slept on Also the
traveling with Dartiguenave, first use of their common bath water. Freidel, p. 279.
floor, and Butler enjoyed XXXIV, No. 1, 37. Thomas, Old Gimlet Eye, pp. 355-560.
Marvin, World's Work,
traveling companion, John A. McIlhenny
to
of the Gendarmerie was nominally subordinate
- Butler, who as commandant
in the observance of protocol; while
President Dartiguenave, was not Butler SO serupulous slept in a bed while the president slept on Also the
traveling with Dartiguenave, first use of their common bath water. Freidel, p. 279.
floor, and Butler enjoyed XXXIV, No. 1, 37. Thomas, Old Gimlet Eye, pp. 355-560.
Marvin, World's Work, --- Page 129 ---
REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION
American civilian official, had been
became the occupation' S leading
in honor of Dartiguenave
unable to eat much at a luncheon given Haitian minister of agriculthe robust
because he was fascinated by
told Roosevelt, "I
him. Mcllhenny
ture who was sitting opposite that that man would have brought
couldn't help saying to myself
in 1860 for stud purposes.
$1,500 at auction in New Orleans
and retold it to AmerRoosevelt appears to have relished the story,
Armour when he visited Haiti as President
ican Minister Norman
in 1934.
Secretary of the Navy Roosevelt took the
While in Haiti, Assistant
investment scheme whereby he
opportunity to pursue a private
In making investigations
hoped to set up an agricultural plantation. development, Roosevelt was
about possible sites for agricultural
Constitution of
anticipating the passage of the American-sponsored clause designed
1918, which contained the foreign landownership Indeed, Roosevelt later
to encourage an influx of American capital.
which was in the
claimed to have himself written this constitution, Haiti. o Roosevelt was
of being drafted at the time he visited
and by
process in his Haitian investment project by McIlhenny
assisted
Major Henry L. (Harry) Roosevelt, who
Roosevelt's distant cousin
d'Haîti and who was
was serving as an officer in the Gendarmerie of the navy years later when
himself to become an assistant secretary the Franklin Roosevelt party
Franklin was president.f Shortly after his cousin
that
Major Harry Roosevelt wrote
requesting
left Haiti,
of boats for the Haitian Coast Guard be
an anticipated shipment
our Coast Guard it will
expedited because, "If you can hurry up Gonave until these vessels
help as I cannot very well get over to
Roosevelt proceeded
arrive. I still have faith in that Island."* Major
on the islands
agricultural and commercial possibilities
to investigate
and Ile à Vache, and reported his findings
of La Gonave, La Tortue,
Harry also advised
to his cousin Franklin and to Mellhenny."
of the AmerFranklin that "if [Willard] Straight could open a branch
did not have much to do with drawing up the Cone In fact, Roosevelt probably
the work of the Office of the Solicitor in the
stitution. The Constitution was chiefly 1920, p. 15. Freidel, p. 284. SD 838.011/--
State Department. NYT, Aug. 19,
series, 1917.
secretaries of the navy from Theodore
t Four Roosevelts served as assistant World War I, Theodore Roosevelt, Jr., during
Roosevelt in 1897 to Franklin and during finally Harry Roosevelt in the 1930's.
the Harding administration,
did not have much to do with drawing up the Cone In fact, Roosevelt probably
the work of the Office of the Solicitor in the
stitution. The Constitution was chiefly 1920, p. 15. Freidel, p. 284. SD 838.011/--
State Department. NYT, Aug. 19,
series, 1917.
secretaries of the navy from Theodore
t Four Roosevelts served as assistant World War I, Theodore Roosevelt, Jr., during
Roosevelt in 1897 to Franklin and during finally Harry Roosevelt in the 1930's.
the Harding administration, --- Page 130 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
down here I think they could grab a
ican International Corporation 9? 11 The American entrance into World
lot of good paying properties. for investment, but Harry wrote to
War I interrupted the plans
business is over we can talk of
Franklin that "After all this war
field for investGonave which I still believe will offer a splendid
ment." >12
out of the picture after the war, but
Harry Roosevelt dropped
who was by then the American
Franklin and John A. McIlhenny, their interest in Haitian investfinancial adviser to Haiti, maintained
Louis Howe wrote
In 1919 Roosevelt's secretary
ment possibilities.
admirers had money to invest and
Roosevelt that one of his wealthy idea than a cat as to how to go about
that the admirer "has no more
Haiti project, this looks like
are still fond of your
it. . . . If you
in consultation
>> 18 In 1922 Roosevelt and McIlhenny,
a
easy money.
made specific plans for the founding of
with Roger L. Farnham,
capital of $500,000, but the venture
trading company with a paid-in apparently felt that he could not
was delayed because McIlhenny deal while he was still employed as
enter in a concrete business
Roosevelt had great
financial adviser to the Haitian government:" defended his plans for a general
hopes for the Haitian venture and
trading company by saying:
that just because the Haytian native population
I cannot agree .
etc. that they never will use them. As a
does not use knives, forks, cups, that during the next generation the
matter of fact I feel convinced
standards more generally in
Haytian population will adopt the living
vogue.
wrote Roosevelt that "It is my intention to
In July, 1922 Mcllhenny
the contract of the loan is
resign as Financial Adviser as soon available as to assist you in any way
signed, and I will therefore be
to
until
desire," >> but McIlhenny was unable resign
that you may and the plan was never consummated."
October, 1922,
and Mcllhenny had in private investThe interest that Roosevelt reflected in the two most significant
ment in Haiti was concurrently administration's Haitian policy during
developments in the Wilson
investment required guarantees
the war years. Promotion of private stability, plus the legal right to
of security and continuing political
neglected to exercise close
While the administration
own property.
available as to assist you in any way
signed, and I will therefore be
to
until
desire," >> but McIlhenny was unable resign
that you may and the plan was never consummated."
October, 1922,
and Mcllhenny had in private investThe interest that Roosevelt reflected in the two most significant
ment in Haiti was concurrently administration's Haitian policy during
developments in the Wilson
investment required guarantees
the war years. Promotion of private stability, plus the legal right to
of security and continuing political
neglected to exercise close
While the administration
own property. --- Page 131 ---
REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION
the marines in Haiti, the State Department, with
supervision over
went to considerable trouMcIlhenny as one of its principal agents, Constitution of 1918 and to
ble to pass the American-sponsored of the Haitian-American treaty of
procure a twenty-year extension
1915.
featured an alien landownership
Just as the 1918 Constitution the
for an influx of American
clause that was designed to open
way intended to create condicapital, the treaty extension was likewise investment and to lay the
tions attractive to American capital external debt. In December,
groundwork for refunding the Haitian financial adviser that it was
1916, Lansing instructed the American
for extension that had
to exercise immediately the option
necessary
1915 treaty in order that American
been included in the original
Client-President Darticapital might be induced to invest in Haiti." leverage by procrastitried to obtain a degree of political
by
guenave
extension but gave in when threatened
nating on the proposed
that "if one government
General Cole, who reported to Washington another Government that
does not accede to the proposition, then extension, signed in March,
will can be installed." The twenty-year
of providing con1917, was executed for the immediate purpose for the successful
tinuity of American control deemed necessary external debt to France
flotation of a new loan by which the Haitian The extension of Ameriwould be consolidated in American hands. of the Haitian debt by
can control until 1936 and consolidation
the
commercial implications, as indicated by
Americans also had
in Haiti were opposed to the extenfact that local French interests
creditors, fearing that
sion and the transfer of the loans to American to the wall."
French commercial interests would be pushed loan, along with
The treaty extension and prospective American indicated that
of American capital investments,
the encouragement would remain in Haiti for a prolonged period and
the United States
to continuance of the military
committed the Wilson administration had taken over all levels of
occupation. The fact that the marines
authority by martial
American
government and were maintaining also tended to commit the United States
law and military repression Withdrawal under these circumstances
to continuing the occupation. immediate overthrow of the client-govwould have resulted in the
outburst by Haitian nationalernment and in an ugly anti-American
French commercial interests would be pushed loan, along with
The treaty extension and prospective American indicated that
of American capital investments,
the encouragement would remain in Haiti for a prolonged period and
the United States
to continuance of the military
committed the Wilson administration had taken over all levels of
occupation. The fact that the marines
authority by martial
American
government and were maintaining also tended to commit the United States
law and military repression Withdrawal under these circumstances
to continuing the occupation. immediate overthrow of the client-govwould have resulted in the
outburst by Haitian nationalernment and in an ugly anti-American --- Page 132 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
when the Wilson administration reasists. This was the situation aftermath of the European war. The
sessed the occupation in the
with the defeat of Gerthreat of European incursions had passed
powers in the war,
and the exhaustion of other European
many
even though it no longer had any
but the military occupation,
terminated. By the time
strategic purpose, could not be practicably of American troops in 1919,
Wilson contemplated the withdrawal
it was too late.
Wilson had consistently chamIn earlier rhetorical statements during the 1916 election when
pioned the rights of small nations and,
the Moncandidate, he had disparaged
he was running as a peace renounced intervention and economic
roe Doctrine and specifically
exploitation in dealing with Mexico:
their uneasiness as to our
The suspicion of our southern neighbors, assume to play Big Brother
growing power, their jealousy that we should has
stood in the way
without their invitation to do sO,
constantly
to them
relations we wished to establish with them
of the amicable and happy
has the right to order its own institu-
. . every nation, every people,
tions as it will.20
administration clearly did not feel that these ideals
The Wilson
occupation of Haiti. Indeed, films
applied to the contemporancous in Haiti were released by the Navy
of marines engaged in combat
the United States as part of
Department to be shown throughout
in
at the
campaign that was progress
the military preparedness statement. 21 Whatever the applicability
time Wilson made the above
to Haiti, Wilson did
of the Wilsonian right of self-determination there after the war. Secretary
hope to limit the military involvement
had felt that "we
Daniels later stated that he personally
of the Navy
out as soon as possible after the war was
ought to take steps to get
intended to maintain the occupaover, > and that Wilson had never withdrawn the American troops
tion after the war and would have Wilson, however, had already
had he not suffered a stroke in 1919.
to his stroke.
tried once and failed to extricate the troops prior Wilson about Haiti
Daniels recalled that he never had a talk with direction of the
1918, Armistice and that
after the November,
and by Financial Adviser
occupation was taken over by Lansing
both of whom Daniels characterized as imperialists."
McIlhenny,
war was
ought to take steps to get
intended to maintain the occupaover, > and that Wilson had never withdrawn the American troops
tion after the war and would have Wilson, however, had already
had he not suffered a stroke in 1919.
to his stroke.
tried once and failed to extricate the troops prior Wilson about Haiti
Daniels recalled that he never had a talk with direction of the
1918, Armistice and that
after the November,
and by Financial Adviser
occupation was taken over by Lansing
both of whom Daniels characterized as imperialists."
McIlhenny, --- Page 133 ---
REONGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION
between Wilson's rhetoric about the rights
The contradiction
of Haiti was dramaof small nations and the American occupation 1919. The Dartitized at the Paris Peace Conference in March, assert itself whenclient-goverment, always striving to
Peace Conferguenave
instructed the Haitian minister at the
ever possible,
Wilson and Lansing in an attempt to capitalize
ence to approach
posture as the champion of selfon Wilson's widely publicized reminder of the potentially embarrassing
determination." The
in Haiti caused Wilson and Lansing
presence of American marines
The American mission to the
to hastily reconsider the occupation. and Lansing, cabled the State
headed by Wilson
Peace Conference,
the withdrawal of the marine brigade
Department that it desired
guard, noting that the
and the substitution of a small legation
for the continuance
Haitian-American treaty of 1915 did not provide law. In this cable the
of American military occupation and martial
had been conAmerican mission observed that military occupation and strategic reasons
tinued because it was "impossible for military of the war, but that with
after the outbreak
to make any change"
excuse for the several reasons canthe return of peace "the same
to continue the
not be advanced . . . it would seem impossible the United States
occupation in the present form, without subjecting of smaller nations are
to much criticism, particularly, as the rights of the President's utterbeing kept to the fore and in the light
ances. 9? 24
the
backed by the
Wilson and Lansing hoped that
Gendarmerie, token marine legaby the presence of a
moral support engendered
the situation.
tion guard, would suffice to control
to Port-au-Prince,
relayed the message
The State Department discussed by the various military and
where the proposition was
The consensus of all
civilian figures who controlled the occupation.
and in Port-authe officials directly involved, both in Washington the troop strength
was that it would not be feasible to reduce
Prince,
In fact, the time for such a move was most
for some time to come." marines were in the midst of suppressing
inopportune because the
1918-19. A week after Lansing and
the caco guerrilla uprisings of
another brihad
the change to a legation guard
Wilson
suggested
to the beleaguered
gade of marines was sent to Haiti as reinforcement Wilson and Lansing
On being informed of the situation,
garrison.
he officials directly involved, both in Washington the troop strength
was that it would not be feasible to reduce
Prince,
In fact, the time for such a move was most
for some time to come." marines were in the midst of suppressing
inopportune because the
1918-19. A week after Lansing and
the caco guerrilla uprisings of
another brihad
the change to a legation guard
Wilson
suggested
to the beleaguered
gade of marines was sent to Haiti as reinforcement Wilson and Lansing
On being informed of the situation,
garrison. --- Page 134 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
to withdraw the marines, acknowledging
dropped their proposal
to make any change in status quo
that "it would appear impossible
in Haiti at present. 92 26
military commitment, the
Faced with the necessity of continued
of reorganizing the
administration turned to the problem
Wilson
administration of the occupation.
chaotic and ineffective American
civilian officials had been
As provided by the 1915 treaty, American commercial, and adminsent to Haiti as overseers of the financial, These officials, headed
istrative functions of the client-goverment. conflict with marine comby a financial adviser, were in continual
of financial adviser in
manders. Shortly after assuming the position
of the Navy
1919, John A. McIlhenny wrote Assistant there Secretary has been an extraordiRoosevelt that "I find that in the past
the Cendarmerie
amount of friction and bad feelings between
friction had
nary
Officials." Mcllhenny noted that this
and the Treaty
and had been "greatly intensified" by
begun during Butler's regime stated his disbelief in the possibility
General Cole, who had "openly
and frankly stated his
of sound administration under the Treaty,
set
of a military or civil governorship . . . he
belief in the necessity
and make the change to military
himself out to prove his premises, > 27
or civil government a necessity.
who had been appointed
Another treaty official, a navy surgeon been surprised to find since
sanitary engineer, reported that "I have
the
of the Marine
arrival here [1917] a complete plan on
part
and all it
my
in toto of the treaty
Corps toward the abandonment
that the civilians had "blood
inferred." Butler, for his part, alleged
to to take
and the Gendarmerie and are going try
in their eye for me
that we are performing, away from
the roads and other incidentals
"we will cer-
>> adding that, if Marine jurisdiction was curtailed,
us,
tainly obey, but not cheerfully."
military and civilian officials
The major point of conflict between in
The treaty officentered around the question of who was charge. of power by the
cials resented the interference and usurpation
authority by
and the marines felt that they had complete
marines,
necessity of maintaining American
virtue of the alleged paramount
absentee administrative comauthority. Admiral Knapp, who was
visit that "the Gendarmander in Haiti, conceded after a personal
in its hands," à but
merie in Haiti is striving to get too much power
ly obey, but not cheerfully."
military and civilian officials
The major point of conflict between in
The treaty officentered around the question of who was charge. of power by the
cials resented the interference and usurpation
authority by
and the marines felt that they had complete
marines,
necessity of maintaining American
virtue of the alleged paramount
absentee administrative comauthority. Admiral Knapp, who was
visit that "the Gendarmander in Haiti, conceded after a personal
in its hands," à but
merie in Haiti is striving to get too much power --- Page 135 ---
REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION
was the failure of all American officials
stated that the main difficulty
inherent in martial
except General Cole to understand "the powers it." >9 The admiral, who was
law and the right of the person exercising Governor of Santo Domingo
concurrently the United States Military law exercised on foreign
and resided there, later stated that martial and added significantly
soil was equivalent to military government, between the exercise of
that "There is no fundamental difference and the Dominican Republic .
governmental powers in Haiti
in the Dominican Republic
what was called Military Government what is called Martial Law in
is the same thing in principle as
Haiti.""
their authority as best they could,
With the marines asserting
and the American civilian offithe Dartiguenave client-government direct it were placed in an ambiguous posicials who were sent to
at the 1922 Senate Inquiry
tion. An American businessman testifying in Haiti had been "undefined"
stated that governmental authority
those who are in Haiti of
and that resulting confusion had "deprived of Haiti was and where
confidence as to just what the Government 80 This ambiguity was
lay, a problem we all know."
the responsibility
turnover of American officials; during the
increased by the rapid
there were six marine brigade comyears between 1915 and 1922
as well as numermanders and six commandants of the Gendarmerie, 81 With the arrival of
within the State Department."
ous changes
the civilian treaty officials gained a
Financial Adviser McIlhenny,
had direct personal contact
larger measure of authority. Mcllhenny Roosevelt and was able to cut
with Assistant Secretary of the Navy command to the extent of
the
official chains of
across
complicated the selection of marine commanders." Neverbeing able to influence
and administrative
theless, the basic problems of disorganization
confusion remained.
by the continuing lack of
The situation was always complicated American financier Roger L.
positive direction from Washington.
with affairs in Haiti
Farnham, who had been intimately acquainted
officials
decade, told the 1922 Senate Inquiry that American
for a
could "in the absence of any definite policy
had done the best they
seemed to me to be
and noted that "They always
to be pursued,"
to be presented to them, along
drifting and waiting for some plan
was aware
could
>2 38 The Wilson administration
which they
proceed."
confusion remained.
by the continuing lack of
The situation was always complicated American financier Roger L.
positive direction from Washington.
with affairs in Haiti
Farnham, who had been intimately acquainted
officials
decade, told the 1922 Senate Inquiry that American
for a
could "in the absence of any definite policy
had done the best they
seemed to me to be
and noted that "They always
to be pursued,"
to be presented to them, along
drifting and waiting for some plan
was aware
could
>2 38 The Wilson administration
which they
proceed." --- Page 136 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
of this difficulty and of the conflicts
1918 Division of Latin-American between occupation officials. A
"complete
Affairs memorandum referred to
manly
disorganization" in Haiti and stated that "It is
possible for these separate officers to
not hucooperate satisfactorily; "Too
function as a whole, and
August, 1920, memorandum many cooks spoil the broth.'" In an
Haiti," Dana G. Munro of the Office entitled "The Present Situation in
that "treaty officials have been
of Foreign Trade Adviser noted
without the
acting on their own personal initiative
knowledge or support of the
current system was a "failure" because Department" and that the
treaty and the failure of the
of "the indefiniteness of the
to pursue a consistent,
department, through the treaty officials,
definite object." s 84 Possible intelligent and tactful policy leading to any
the
efforts by the administration to
occupation were dropped when
reform
the object of widespread
Wilson's Haitian policy became
tial election
public criticism during the 1920
campaign. Internal criticism
presidenceased and public
within the administration
purpose" of the
pronouncements emphasized the "benevolent
and the intention occupation, of the
the "gratitude" of the Haitian
The Wilson
United States to withdraw shortly. 86 people,
ject of national administration's attention
activities in Haiti had become a subpresidential candidate in August, 1920, when Democratic vicecampaign
Franklin D. Roosevelt made the
the
statement: "You know I have had
following
running of a couple of little
something to do with
Haiti's Constitution myself,
republics. The facts are that I wrote
Constitution." >> 86
and, if) I do say it, I think it a pretty good
The assertion about authorship of Haiti's
ous. Nevertheless, Republican
Constitution was dubiing took up the Haitian issue presidential in
candidate Warren HardMarion, Ohio, nine days
a speech from his front porch in
dent he would not
later, saying that if he were elected presidraft a constitution "empower for
an Assistant Secretary of the Navy to
helpless
jam it down their throats at the neighbors in the West Indies and
Marines." >> In subsequent
point of bayonets borne by U.S.
"rape of Haiti" and charged campaign that speeches Harding referred to the
been killed by American
"thousands of native Haitians
marines." 87 James Weldon
have
prominent black Republican and a
Johnson, a
tional Advisory Committee who member of the Republican Nawas active in opposing the occupa-
, saying that if he were elected presidraft a constitution "empower for
an Assistant Secretary of the Navy to
helpless
jam it down their throats at the neighbors in the West Indies and
Marines." >> In subsequent
point of bayonets borne by U.S.
"rape of Haiti" and charged campaign that speeches Harding referred to the
been killed by American
"thousands of native Haitians
marines." 87 James Weldon
have
prominent black Republican and a
Johnson, a
tional Advisory Committee who member of the Republican Nawas active in opposing the occupa- --- Page 137 ---
REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION
situation with Harding in Marion and
tion, discussed the Haitian that he looked upon the Haitian matter
observed that "I could see
tree. He could not conceal his
as a gift right off the Christmas
Harding told Johnson, "We
delight." After the election President
material. >2 88
certainly made a good shot with that Haitian after the Navy DePublic criticism of the occupation intensifed Barnett's report alluding
partment released Marine Commandant natives" in the closing weeks of the
to "indiscriminate killing of
decried "slavery in Haiti,"
1920 election campaign." Newspapers and Wilson's hypocrisy, but
"slaughter, "shameful abuse of power,"
The Literary
were also made in defense of the president.
statements
had been made against the
Digest pointed out that the same charges
insurrection during the
Republicans with reference to the Philippine
atrocity
One of the more sensational
1900 election campaign." York Times two days after the release
stories appeared in the New
of the Barnett statement:
largely made up of and officered by SouthHow American marines, machine guns from airplanes upon defenseless
erners, opened fire with
and children in the open market
Haitian villages, killing men, slain women, for "sport" by a hoodlum element among
places; how natives were and how the ancient corvee system of enforced
these same Southerners;
executed, increasing, through retaliation,
labor was revived and ruthlessly
was told yesterday by Henry
the banditry in Haiti and Santo Domingo, on the West Indies.
A. Franck, the noted traveler and authority
sensitive to the wave of criticism, and
Occupation officials were
permission to place George
Financial Adviser Mcllhenny requested
article "Healthy
written the laudatory
Marvin, who had previously
on the Haitian government
Haiti" for World's Work magazine,
and papers
payroll "to prepare articles for American magazines in Haiti."
truthfully showing the work of American would occupation censor all articles,
Mcllhenny assured the department that he
saying that
of State Bainbridge Colby disapproved,
to
but Secretary
but not
Marvin could be hired to make commercial propaganda 42
solely for the American occupation."
write propaganda
within the United States had preOpposition to the occupation launched during the 1920 election
dated the Republican attack
had been favorable. In a
campaign, but most journalistic coverage
Haiti" for World's Work magazine,
and papers
payroll "to prepare articles for American magazines in Haiti."
truthfully showing the work of American would occupation censor all articles,
Mcllhenny assured the department that he
saying that
of State Bainbridge Colby disapproved,
to
but Secretary
but not
Marvin could be hired to make commercial propaganda 42
solely for the American occupation."
write propaganda
within the United States had preOpposition to the occupation launched during the 1920 election
dated the Republican attack
had been favorable. In a
campaign, but most journalistic coverage --- Page 138 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
1969 study of press reaction to the
Dominican Republic, American
occupation in Haiti and the
termined that
scholar John W. Blassingame deforty-nine out of sixty-nine
study endorsed the policy of intervention journals included in the
only twenty "strenuously
from 1904 to 1919, while
few journals, excepting the objected." Blassingame pointed out that
Nation,
interventions. 43 Several
consistently fought against the
colonial interests,
magazines active in promoting American
notably World's Work and National
published roseate articles praising the
Geographic,
1920, just prior to the denunciations occupation in Haiti. In midpaign, the Nation published
attendant to the election cammann and James Weldon a series of articles by Herbert J. Seligoccupation for racism,
Johnson, both of whom attacked the
brutality, and economic
son, who was Secretary of the National
exploitation.* Johnment of Colored People
Association for the AdvanceNation organized American (NAACP), and Ernest Gruening of the
occupation. Both men also anti-imperialist efforts to terminate the
a Haitian resistance
played leading roles in the formation of
of the Nation, continued movement, while Gruening, as managing editor
to direct attacks
through the early 1930s. In 1920, with the against the occupation
the election campaign and the
of exposés engendered by
impact the
articles, most American periodicals
Seligmann and Johnson
James Weldon Johnson
were critical of the occupation." ,45
with prominent members visited Haiti in February, 1920, and met
of the Haitian
an organization similar to the NAACP elite, urging them to set up
who had opposed the
in Haiti. Georges Sylvain,
affected Haitians followed occupation since its inception, and other disPatriotique, which
Johnson's advice and founded the Union
United States. 46 The undertook activities propaganda work in Haiti and the
of the Union
severely limited because of American
Patriotique in Haiti were
censorship, but it did
martial law and rigid
took place
manage to organize public
press
during the visit of the 1922
demonstrations that
in close touch with Ernest
Senate Inquiry. Sylvain kept
coordinated
Gruening in New York, where Gruening
helped raise money anti-occupation for the activities in the United States and
case before the Senate
presentation of the Union Patriotique's
Inquiry.
The fight against the occupation in the
around the Nation, where
United States centered
Gruening and Oswald Garrison Villard
Haiti were
censorship, but it did
martial law and rigid
took place
manage to organize public
press
during the visit of the 1922
demonstrations that
in close touch with Ernest
Senate Inquiry. Sylvain kept
coordinated
Gruening in New York, where Gruening
helped raise money anti-occupation for the activities in the United States and
case before the Senate
presentation of the Union Patriotique's
Inquiry.
The fight against the occupation in the
around the Nation, where
United States centered
Gruening and Oswald Garrison Villard --- Page 139 ---
REOHGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION
arranged for
publicized the argument for Haitian independence, Senate Inquiry, and
of the Haitian case before the 1922
presentation the activities of the Haiti-Santo Domingo Independence Nation
promoted
held several public meetings. In 1921 the
Society, which
prepared for
the lengthy memoir that the Union Patriotique
Relaprinted
and the Senate Foreign
submission to the State Department
memoir could not be
tions Committee." 48 The Union Patriotique's commander, nor could
reprinted in Haiti on orders from the brigade
49 Because of
the
from the American press.
comments on
memoir
of anti-imperialists in the
repression within Haiti, the assistance especially when it came to
United States was all the more valuable,
During
before the Senate Inquiry."
making an effective presentation
effective at
1920s the Union Patriotique was marginally
the early
to Haitian nationalists under
best, but few alternatives were open exiled former presidential
American military rule. Some, including
futile secret
candidate Dr. Rosalvo Bobo, persisted in plotting when the Ameralliances that were to go into effect if and
intellipolitical
After 1921 the Gendarmerie
ican troops were withdrawn."
influence, and attitude
section kept records on the reputation, 62
gence
Haitians toward the occupation.
of all prominent
of the occupation during the 1920
The Republican denunciations agitation in the press culminated
election campaign and associated late 1921 and early 1922. The inin a full-scale Senate Inquiry in Committee on Haiti and Santo
quiry was made by a special Select and chaired by Republican
consisting of three senators
Domingo
of Illinois. e McCormick had advocated
Senator Medill McCormick since 1920 and was in close correspondreforming the occupation
whom he sent to Haiti in advance
ence with Ernest Gruening,
with the Haitians. Gruening,
of the committee to arrange contacts code because of marine censorcorresponding with McCormick by affair with the Haitian elite
ship, managed to schedule a social
The Occuof the committee's three nights in Port-au-Prince.
for one
arranged for the committee to be entertained
pation had previously
Gruening also contacted his friends
exclusively by the Occupation.
suggested many of the
in the Union Patriotique and personally
consisted of five senators: Philander C. Knox (R-Pa.);
The committee nominally Atlee Pomerene (D-Ohio); William H. King (D-Utah);
Tasker L. Oddie (R-Nev.); but Knox and King did not participate.
and McCormick;
a social
The Occuof the committee's three nights in Port-au-Prince.
for one
arranged for the committee to be entertained
pation had previously
Gruening also contacted his friends
exclusively by the Occupation.
suggested many of the
in the Union Patriotique and personally
consisted of five senators: Philander C. Knox (R-Pa.);
The committee nominally Atlee Pomerene (D-Ohio); William H. King (D-Utah);
Tasker L. Oddie (R-Nev.); but Knox and King did not participate.
and McCormick; --- Page 140 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
slogans, such as "Don't Make Haiti America's
carried on placards by Haitian
Congo," that were
rival of the senators in
demonstrators who greeted the armittee heard
November, 1921.58 While in Haiti the comtestimony from elite
of
Patriotique and from peasants in the interior representatives
the Union
atrocity stories, but the committee
who related numerous
sensational statements and in its final was unimpressed by the more
tions in Haitian testimony which
report pointed to contradicThe committee conducted
suggested subornation."
of the occupation in Haiti and an elaborate and thorough investigation
occupation in the Dominican also expended a lesser effort on the
Republic. The
hearings came to several thousand
printed record of the
exercise was largely
pages. Yet the whole elaborate
rationalize the
redundant, since the decisions to reorganize and
and
occupation had been made in advance
were mainly unaffected by it. The
of the inquiry
of the impulse to reform the
hearings were a consequence
election campaign and served occupation generated during the 1920
more as a public
peroration on the confused,
expiation and official
tion than as an impetus to mismanaged first phase of the occupaby the committee coincided new decisions. The conclusions reached
man McCormick had
almost exactly with the opinions Chairarticle entitled "Our previously Failure expressed in 1920. In a magazine
the need for administrative in Haiti," McCormick had stressed
and stated, "We are there, and reorganization in
rather than withdrawal,
there for twenty years.' >> 55 The
my judgment we ought to stay
by the Wilson administration committee criticized "blunders" made
Haiti, in
in failing to centralize
enforcing the corvée, and in failing to select authority in
personnel who were "sympathetic to the
occupation
tain cordial personal and official
Haitians and able to mainhand, it praised sanitation
relations with them." On the other
work, road building,
governmental administrative reforms,
currency reform,
the maintenance of peace and
alleged increases in trade, and
under the treaty, the peace of the security, concluding that "In brief,
ernment, and the security of its republic, the solvency of its Govfirst time in many years. 92 56 The people have been established for the
forum for the various divergent committee hearings provided a
from a statement by the
views on the occupation, ranging
Episcopal
Right Reverend Charles
Bishop of Puerto Rico and Haiti, that "The Blayney Colmore,
reconstruction
road building,
governmental administrative reforms,
currency reform,
the maintenance of peace and
alleged increases in trade, and
under the treaty, the peace of the security, concluding that "In brief,
ernment, and the security of its republic, the solvency of its Govfirst time in many years. 92 56 The people have been established for the
forum for the various divergent committee hearings provided a
from a statement by the
views on the occupation, ranging
Episcopal
Right Reverend Charles
Bishop of Puerto Rico and Haiti, that "The Blayney Colmore,
reconstruction --- Page 141 ---
REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION
marines in Haiti provides one of the most
work of the United States
American histhrilling and gratifying chapters in contemporaneous indulged in by
tory," to stories of water torture and brandings
marines. 57
Committee recommended that
In its final report the McCormick Haiti because "drastic reducthe marine garrison be maintained in withdrawal, would certainly be
tion of the marine force, or its early
and by the organization of
followed by a recurrence of brigandage
control, the senators
revolutionary bands." Instead of relinquishing
of indusrecommended that the United States undertake a program and coordinate
education, abolish martial law,
trial and agricultural
58 In an informal preliminary
the administration of the occupation." McCormick and his colleagues
report to Secretary of State Hughes, Commissioner" with powers
recommended that an American "High
should be
and Envoy Plenipotentiary"
of "Minister Extraordinary
to supervise the Gendarmerie,
appointed by the State Department civilian treaty officials, all of
the marine brigade, and the several
59 Hughes had
whom would be relegated to subordinate positions." and, in Octosimilar conclusion even before the inquiry,
come to a
of the Navy Edwin Denby to recomber, 1921, had asked Secretary be
in charge of Haiti as "Representative
mend a marine officer to put
exercised by
with duties similar to those currently
of the President"
in Cuba, but with more power and
General Enoch H. Crowder
General Smedley Butler for
greater initiative. Hughes suggested
served in Haiti and had
noting that Butler had already
the position,
successful." 60
been "exceedingly
officer to be high commissioner, rather
The selection of a military
observers, indicated that
than a civilian as had been hoped by many remained that of exercising
the major concern of the United States could not be gracefully withAmerican authority. American troops
Dominican Republic, SO
drawn, as they were from the neighboring function of sitting on Haiti
the Occupation was left with the primary
of military control.
until cireumstances permitted the relinquishment did not make systematic
Under military leadership the Occupation and most departments were
preparations for American withdrawal, of responsibility. The key
reluctant to promote Haitians to positions from the Dominican Republic
factors in the American withdrawal of the Guardia Nacional to
in 1924 involved transferring control
many remained that of exercising
the major concern of the United States could not be gracefully withAmerican authority. American troops
Dominican Republic, SO
drawn, as they were from the neighboring function of sitting on Haiti
the Occupation was left with the primary
of military control.
until cireumstances permitted the relinquishment did not make systematic
Under military leadership the Occupation and most departments were
preparations for American withdrawal, of responsibility. The key
reluctant to promote Haitians to positions from the Dominican Republic
factors in the American withdrawal of the Guardia Nacional to
in 1924 involved transferring control --- Page 142 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
and the working out of a contingent
trusted Dominican protégés
of the Gendarmerie
political solution. e In Haiti, the Haitianization until after the strikes and
officer corps made relatively little progress
riots of 1929.
commissioner was averted
The selection of General Butler as high of the Division of Latin
by the intercession of Dana G. Munro members of the McCorAmerican Affairs, who, along with several of State Hughes that
mick Committee, pointed out to Secretary the
The eventual
unsuited for
job."
Butler was temperamentally
had been brigade commander
selection, General John H. Russell,
and ultimately spent
through most of the period since late 1917, finally retiring as high
thirteen years as the top marine in Haiti, recalled that his first introcommissioner in late 1930. Russell later
cruise while he
duction to Haiti had been on an 1893 midshipman's
the United States Naval Academy:
was attending
under remarks covering this visit I speak
In my midshipman's journal,
I had ever seen and I express the
of Port-au-Prince as the dirtiest city
However, inexorhope that I will never have to visit the country again. years later, again,
able Fate decreed otherwise and some twenty-four thirteen years in Port-auI arrived in Haiti and lived for approximately
Prince."
Russell clarified his own attitude toward sharing authority
In 1921
to the State Departwith Haitian collaborators in a memorandum for Haiti":
ment entitled "Regarding a Constructive Policy
the
of dual control, or of two nations administering
The absurdity
obvious to need comment. Two men can ride
affairs of a country is too behind. If the United States is to ride behind
a horse but one must ride
it had better withdraw entirely and let
in its conduct of Haitian Affairs of chaos when, after a time, the United
the country revert to a condition
Haiti or permit some foreign
States would be forced to again occupy
nation to do s0.9
commissioner from 1922 until 1930, exRussell, serving as high
effort in supporting progressive polipended considerable personal
Colonel Rafael Trujillo, who assumed
The most notable American protégé was after American departure and began, with
command of the Guardia less than a dictatorship year
in 1930.
American support, a thirty-one-year
in its conduct of Haitian Affairs of chaos when, after a time, the United
the country revert to a condition
Haiti or permit some foreign
States would be forced to again occupy
nation to do s0.9
commissioner from 1922 until 1930, exRussell, serving as high
effort in supporting progressive polipended considerable personal
Colonel Rafael Trujillo, who assumed
The most notable American protégé was after American departure and began, with
command of the Guardia less than a dictatorship year
in 1930.
American support, a thirty-one-year --- Page 143 ---
REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION
but he did not hold the
cies in educational and economic uplift,
the
that they
Haitians in high regard. In 1919 he expressed
opinion Latin races" and
"the characteristics of both the negro and the
had
Haitien who lives in the country is more or
that "The uneducated
do whatever he is told." In 1925 he
less of an animal, who will had been held in a backward state by
observed that the peasants
of a child of not more than seven
the elite and had "the mentality
conditions." Russell felt
years of age reared under advantageous
was "bordering
of the Haitian population
>2
that "a large proportion"
existing in such a state, and
on a state of savagery, if not actually about voodoo priests practicing
apparently believed spurious stories
human sacrifice." 64
whom the McCormick
Unlike some of his marine predecessors Russell made a point
Committee had criticized as "unsympathetic," with members of the
polite and cordial relations
of maintaining
who spoke French perfectly, associated
Haitian elite, and his wife,
during his command of the
with elite ladies." At various times commissioner, Russell was
marine brigade and tenure as high to have been a racial modaccused of being a racist, but he appears because of his position as comerate who was subjected to attack
of the American presence,
mander of the Occupation and figurehead
supported Jim
racist. Russell, a Georgian,
which was pervasively
when he was chairman of the board of
Crow racial segregation, as
the membership applicathe all-white American Club and vetoed
mulatto,
white Swiss who was about to marry a Haitian
tion of a
courteous in his personal relations with
but he was scrupulously
of the 1930 Presidential ComHaitians. He avowed to the chairman
"cultivate
that he had made determined efforts to personally
mission
of color. 99 66 That relations were never
Haitian society regardless
be attributed more to generally
particularly warm or enthusiastic can
segregation and
social conventions of racial and cultural
to
operative
in chief, rather than
to Russell's personal aloofness as commander
exceptional prejudice on Russell's part. commissioner in February,
General Russell was appointed high
all American activities
1922, with orders to supervise and coordinate
as the personal
in Haiti and report directly to the State Department of
comof the president in Haiti." The position high authorrepresentative
of diplomatic and administrative
missioner involved a fusing
66 That relations were never
Haitian society regardless
be attributed more to generally
particularly warm or enthusiastic can
segregation and
social conventions of racial and cultural
to
operative
in chief, rather than
to Russell's personal aloofness as commander
exceptional prejudice on Russell's part. commissioner in February,
General Russell was appointed high
all American activities
1922, with orders to supervise and coordinate
as the personal
in Haiti and report directly to the State Department of
comof the president in Haiti." The position high authorrepresentative
of diplomatic and administrative
missioner involved a fusing --- Page 144 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION
OF HAITI, 1915-1934
ity, and, as Financial Adviser Arthur C.
interesting resemblance to Great Britain's Millspaugh noted, bore "an
1882 to 1914." 68 Russell himself
position in Egypt from
role and that of the British
recognized the analogy between his
Cromer's
high commissioners and had read
"interesting and instructive" book
Lord
requested special
on Egypt, but when he
reports on Egypt the State
replying: "The Department has read with Department demurred,
in which you compare the relations interest your despatch
and Haiti to the relations
between the United States
will doubtless realize that between Great Britain and Egypt. You
Haiti have
critics of this Government's
sometimes made this same
policy toward
upon the Department.' >> 69
comparison a basis for attacks
Client-President Louis Borno, whose term of
Russell's tenure as high commissioner,
office coincided with
Egyptian analogy, and stated,
was also attracted by the
tionably" United States
according to Russell, that
control over Haiti was
"unquessecurity of the Panama Canal
essential to the
just as British control
necessary to protect the Suez Canal,70
in Egypt was
Butler, referred to "a deadline drawn Gendarmerie Commandant
the same as there is in
between me and the Haitiens,
Egyptians." 9 The
Egypt-between the British agents and the
comparison with Lord
missioner in Egypt was apt.
Cromer's rule as high comoccupation, observed that Cromer, in his history of the British
control and
"one alien race, the English, have
guide a second alien race, the Turks,
had to
disliked, in the government of a third
by whom they are
Egyptians, in turn, were
race, the Egyptians." >3 The
A similar tripartite
unsympathetic" to the dominant "races." 71
mulatto Haitian system existed in Haiti, with the
the
elite, and the black rural masses. Americans,
Russell's authority in Haiti was no less than that of
counterpart; he supervised all civilian
his British
marine brigade and the Gendarmerie treaty officials, controlled the
and dominated the Haitian
by virtue of his military rank,
between treaty officials and client-goverment. both the
All correspondence
governments was forwarded
United States and Haitian
instructed his subordinates through his office. In early 1923 Russell
purely of an administrative that "Treaty Officials whose functions are
matters of policy unless character will in no case comment on
Throughout his tenure as specifically high
requested to do SO by me. 2
commissioner, Russell remained ex-
civilian
his British
marine brigade and the Gendarmerie treaty officials, controlled the
and dominated the Haitian
by virtue of his military rank,
between treaty officials and client-goverment. both the
All correspondence
governments was forwarded
United States and Haitian
instructed his subordinates through his office. In early 1923 Russell
purely of an administrative that "Treaty Officials whose functions are
matters of policy unless character will in no case comment on
Throughout his tenure as specifically high
requested to do SO by me. 2
commissioner, Russell remained ex- --- Page 145 ---
REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION
to the Secretary of
tremely jealous of his authority, complaining officials were consulted
State about division of authority when treaty he be consulted on nominadirectly by the department, insisting that
the disfor Haitian commands, procuring
tion of marine personnel
and feuding with civilian
missal of recalcitrant marines and civilians,
officials who challenged or questioned his policies." Russell presided conbureaucracy over which
The Occupation
civilians who served in departments
sisted of about 250 American officials. The most powerful treaty
headed by the several treaty the
of drawing up the
official, the financial adviser, had prerogative the expenditure of all
Haitian government budget and authorizing
to dismissal in
funds, but even this official was subject
governmental
Financial Adviser Arthur C. Millspaugh,
case of conflict with Russell.
with Russell, described
who was dismissed following a controversy
commissioner's authority as follows:
the high
to the President of Haiti
Nominally, the treaty officials are responsible in practice, they are directed
(Haitian] Ministers;
or to their respective
He not only vetoes but also drafts
by the High Commissioner. : . contracts with American companies,
Haitian legislation. He negotiates attitude to be assumed toward them by
determines the administrative
himself in the details of claims,
the American treaty officials, and interests and in agricultural, educathe collection of revenue, road construction officers have little official
tional, and sanitary matters. American and their treaty relations with the Ministers
contact with the Haitian executive
become perfunctory or formal.a
have necessarily
commandant of the Gendarmerie, wrote
Colonel J. S. Turrill,
that "Nothing of importance
Marine Corps Commandant Lejeune General Russell's sanction,"
can be done in the Gendarmerie without orders from its nominal
and that when the Gendarmerie received
had to get Russell's
Turrill always
chief, the Haitian client-president,
approval before carrying them out.?4
Russell and the adminThe appointment of High Commissioner intended to centralize authority
istrative reorganization of 1922 were of the Occupation. A correand increase the internal efficiency
of the Haitian clientsponding change was made in the leadership become recalcitrant and
government. Dartiguenave, who had again
the proposed
obstructive, this time over the questions of contracting
endarmerie without orders from its nominal
and that when the Gendarmerie received
had to get Russell's
Turrill always
chief, the Haitian client-president,
approval before carrying them out.?4
Russell and the adminThe appointment of High Commissioner intended to centralize authority
istrative reorganization of 1922 were of the Occupation. A correand increase the internal efficiency
of the Haitian clientsponding change was made in the leadership become recalcitrant and
government. Dartiguenave, who had again
the proposed
obstructive, this time over the questions of contracting --- Page 146 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1984
and the granting of a monopoly on the
American loan consolidation
Nationale, was replaced by
importation of currency to the Banque and refinement who was
Louis Borno." Borno was a man of stature
Although he had
accomplished as both a poet and a statesman."
minister of
opposed Ceneral Waller's regime as Dartiguenave's colonel in 1918)
affairs in 1916, and Russell himself (as a
foreign
his dismissal from the Cabinet, Borno was temperahad insisted on
to the purposes and methods
mentally and ideologically sympathetic admirer of Mussolini, he welof the occupation." 77 As an avowed
in Haiti and defended the
comed the suppression of political dissent the people of Haiti, who
occupation as a period of great progress; 99
of exercising
ignorant and poor, were "incapable
were "illiterate, and had to be governed by progressive, authorithe right to vote"
toward authoritarian uplift and
tarian leaders." Borno's inclinations
were comparable to the
adoption of American technical proficiency of fascism in Italy, but Borno and
advanced, sophisticated program lacked the popular, nationalistic
other Haitian collaborators sorely
to nationalism or ethnic,
appeal of Mussolini. Any effective have appeal had to, and eventually did,
racial assertiveness in Haiti would
of foreign domination. In
begin with the demand to rid the country
elseto the charisma of contemporary fascist leadership
contrast
stolid and distant. For the occupation to have
where, Borno was
would have been self-destrucexcited popular political awareness total lack of popular appeal
tive. At the same time the occupation's precipitate anti-American
and indifference to public relations helped
resistance.
with High Commissioner Russell in an
Borno cooperated closely Adviser Millspaugh termed a "Joint
arrangement which Financial
until the strikes
Dictatorship," and was retained as client-president harmony between
and riots of 1929." Despite the apparent outward retained effective
Borno and his sponsors, the Americans always the action of Financial
control of the occupation as demonstrated withheld by Borno's pay check
Adviser Dr. W. W. Cumberland, who
with him. Cumberland
the first time the president failed to cooperate that
forward" and that
remarked that "He respected me from
day close friends." 80
after this incident he and Borno became between "very Borno and the AmerThe close and sympathetic relations the turmoil and conflict charactericans were in marked contrast to
client-president harmony between
and riots of 1929." Despite the apparent outward retained effective
Borno and his sponsors, the Americans always the action of Financial
control of the occupation as demonstrated withheld by Borno's pay check
Adviser Dr. W. W. Cumberland, who
with him. Cumberland
the first time the president failed to cooperate that
forward" and that
remarked that "He respected me from
day close friends." 80
after this incident he and Borno became between "very Borno and the AmerThe close and sympathetic relations the turmoil and conflict charactericans were in marked contrast to --- Page 147 ---
REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION
Dartiguenave
istic of the last years of the Dartiguenave government. and recalcitrance accordhad alternated between pliant cooperation
to please the Amering to shifting political circumstances, the trying part of a Haitian patriot,
icans, on the one hand, while playing
both sides; the Union
the other. In the end he was rejected by
on
refused his offer of a large donation and the Americans
Patriotique
Commander Russell described Darcast him off." In 1919 Brigade
a man of no
"At heart he is anti-American,
tiguenave as follows:
believer, and he will only work for
integrity, a schemer, a Vaudou
interests or he is
the
of Haiti when it is to his own personal
good
>> 82
forced to do SO by the Occupation."
concurred in disparagMost Americans involved in the occupation
Butler, for instance, referred to Dartiguenave's
ing Dartiguenave.
and distrusted by a vast majority of the
government as "despised official
rolls, and as far as I have
people at large, not on the
pay with justice. 88
personally observed to my own humiliation, had made a favorable imFinancial Adviser John A. Mcllhenny 1919 and had, in turn, been taken
pression on his arrival in Haiti in
At the time, he described
in by the Dartiguenave client-government with the belief in the absolute necesDartiguenave as "fully imbued and in accord with all that the Occusity for American Occupation,
felt that various objections
pation is seeking to do." McIlhenny Cabinet were "all due to their effort
raised by Dartiguenave and his of Haiti that they are in fact the
to have it appear to the people when it comes to the last show-down,
Government of Haiti : . . but
show of firmness by the
they are perfectly willing, upon which proper is deemed necessary by the
Occupation, to do that thing
Occupation." 84
reported to the State Department that
A year later McIlhenny
"definitely and strongly antithe Dartiguenave government was
to reorganize the Cabinet
American" and that it would be necessary
with the
to force the government to cooperate
and take measures
between the Dartiguenave
Occupation." The final estrangement about as the result of conflicts
government and the Americans came
charter to the National
involving the transfer of the 1910 Banque
which American
Bank and the flotation of a new loan by
City
Haiti's external debt.
creditors were to consolidate
transfer control of the Banque
The United States had hoped to
and strongly antithe Dartiguenave government was
to reorganize the Cabinet
American" and that it would be necessary
with the
to force the government to cooperate
and take measures
between the Dartiguenave
Occupation." The final estrangement about as the result of conflicts
government and the Americans came
charter to the National
involving the transfer of the 1910 Banque
which American
Bank and the flotation of a new loan by
City
Haiti's external debt.
creditors were to consolidate
transfer control of the Banque
The United States had hoped to --- Page 148 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
debt to American financial interNationale and the Haitian external F. L. Mayer of the Division of
ests from the outset. In January, 1918,
Latin American Affairs noted:
in the affairs of another is, it would
Political influence by one country control therein, especially in the
seem, in direct ratio with economic
American
case of a small state such as Haiti . outright progressive feelings toward the
banking methods would result in increased influence good in Haitian life and
United States in Haiti and added American
politics."
American minister and the financial adviser
A few weeks later the
that they were "of the opinion
reported to the State Department
Nationale to American
that the transfer of the control of the Banque from the standpoint of
banking interests would be highly desirable interests in Haiti." 87 With
advancement of American influence and
Bank purchased
of the State Department, National City
the support
other American participants in the Banque
the shares held by the
French stockholders for $1,412,-
in April, 1916, and bought out the
the transfer of the Banque
000 in June, 1920." In order to complete
the 1910 Banque
American interests it was necessary to revise
to
charter.
National City Bank, and the Dartiguenave
The State Department,
for transfer of the Banque
government began three-way negotiations the Haitian government,
charter in 1920. Mcllhenny, representing National City Bank on charter
reached tentative agreement with
to insist on additional
modifications, but the bank then proceeded
backed by Amerconcessions which the Dartiguenave government, who feared monopoly of
ican and other foreign business houses refused to approve." 89 Dartiforeign currency by the Banque Nationale modifications of the Banque
guenave's refusal to accept the new exacerbated dispute over laws
charter coincided with an already
and returning
the right of foreigners to own property
restricting
to Germans which the Dartiguenave governsequestered property
without American approval. In response
ment had attempted to pass refused to consider the new governto this obstinacy, Mcllhenny
and suspended the salaries of
mental budget for the coming year Cabinet. 90 Secretary of State Colby
President Dartiguenave and his
of salaries, informing Mcexpressed displeasure at the stopping
modifications of the Banque
guenave's refusal to accept the new exacerbated dispute over laws
charter coincided with an already
and returning
the right of foreigners to own property
restricting
to Germans which the Dartiguenave governsequestered property
without American approval. In response
ment had attempted to pass refused to consider the new governto this obstinacy, Mcllhenny
and suspended the salaries of
mental budget for the coming year Cabinet. 90 Secretary of State Colby
President Dartiguenave and his
of salaries, informing Mcexpressed displeasure at the stopping --- Page 149 ---
REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION
Ilhenny that the department had not
another State Department official
authorized the move, and
steps taken by treaty officials
noted that "arbitrary and radical
without
partment have committed the
authorization from the DeThis confusion was
Department to an extreme position. >9 01
in the State
apparently caused by the change of
Department following the dismissal of
leadership
Lansing early in 1920. When
Secretary of State
the 1922 Senate
Mellhenny was about to appear before
American Affairs Inquiry, Sumner Welles of the Division of Latin
informed Secretary of State
henny's stoppage of Haitian salaries in 1920 Hughes that McIlcertain confidential and oral
had been "based upon
Secretary of State, Mr.
instructions given to him by the then
these instructions
Lansing" and that, since "the
would be harmful at this
publication of
if Hughes persuaded
time," it would be best
orders. 02
Mcllhenny not to disclose the conflict in
McIlhenny later attributed the failure of the
negotiations to the obstinacy of National
Banque charter
Welles accused National
City Bank, and Sumner
City Bank of
garded an agreement which they entered having "deliberately disreof State." Welles, in 1922,
into with the Department
permit the City Bank
argued that "I do not feel that we should
Government which this people to exact conditions from the Haitian
which the City Bank formally Department regards as too onerous and
ing reached in 1920." 93 The agreed to renounce in the understandState
to procure modifications in the
Department persisted in trying
National City Bank abandoned Banque charter favoring Haiti, and
importation of foreign
its demands for monopoly of the
signed after the
currency, but the final Contract of Transfer,
departure of the obstructive
ment, was little different from the
Dartiguenave governtary of State Knox had considered original 1910 charter that SecreThe most binding facet of the 1921-22 unduly exploitative. 94
pation was the consolidation of the reorganization of the occuhands of American creditors.
Haitian external debt in the
of United States
This had long been a major
policy and had
the
objective
The Wilson administration had prompted
1917 treaty extension.
ing the war, but Wilson, who tried to procure a Haitian loan durthe debt to ensure
realized the importance of
complete American control,
refunding
Administration has not access to banking
observed that "this
assistance that some pre-
The most binding facet of the 1921-22 unduly exploitative. 94
pation was the consolidation of the reorganization of the occuhands of American creditors.
Haitian external debt in the
of United States
This had long been a major
policy and had
the
objective
The Wilson administration had prompted
1917 treaty extension.
ing the war, but Wilson, who tried to procure a Haitian loan durthe debt to ensure
realized the importance of
complete American control,
refunding
Administration has not access to banking
observed that "this
assistance that some pre- --- Page 150 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
and I do not feel at all sure that we
vious administrations have had,
look attractive to The
could make the refunding here proposed
Street. 99 95
informed the State Department that
In 1917 Roger L. Farnham
Guaranty Trust Company, and
National City Bank, J. P. Morgan,
duty,"
Bank would make a loan offer as "a patriotic
First National
that the loan be regarded by the Treasury
but only on condition
that the Treasury
Department in the same light as a Liberty Loan,
bank deHaitian bonds as security for public
Department accept
Haitian Railway bonds be liquidated,
posits, that the controversial
Haiti during the
and that the United States guarantee to supervise
Loan and
the bonds. 96 Shortly after this the second Liberty
life of
attendant to financing the European war forced
other circumstances
operation.
the abandonment of the Haitian refunding
had
been
client-government, which
originally
The Dartiguenave
of
its desperate
to procure a new loan as a means alleviating
after
eager
vigorously opposed refunding negotiations
financial condition, Haitians would in no case be allowed to partiit became clear that
occupation
in allocation of new funds or in determining
cipate
to achieve some influpolicies. Frustrated in all his many intrigues Dartiguenave became
ence in the management of the occupation,
to Acting Finanrecalcitrant after 1920 and, according
increasingly
Maumus, was intent on allowing his client-governcial Adviser A.] J.
of
the Amerment to drift into bankruptcy as a means discrediting in
case.
as
was safe any
icans, feeling that his own salary president
who was
by Financial Adviser McIlhenny,
Maumus, supported
the new loan, threatened
absent in the United States negotiating salaries until Dartigueto stop payment of all Haitian government operation, but Dartito cooperate with the refunding
nave agreed
hostile and the loan could not be officially
guenave remained advent of Louis Borno as president." 97 In changconcluded until the
of a loan in 1920, Dartiguenave
ing his position on the desirability
because
that a refunding loan was no longer necessary
that
argued
made it possible to care for the debt service,
increased revenues
from devaluation of the French franc had
an advantage to be gained
loan would cost 7 or 8 percent,
been eliminated, and that the new
interest. 08 These conwhile the old loans cost only 5 or 6 percent
be officially
guenave remained advent of Louis Borno as president." 97 In changconcluded until the
of a loan in 1920, Dartiguenave
ing his position on the desirability
because
that a refunding loan was no longer necessary
that
argued
made it possible to care for the debt service,
increased revenues
from devaluation of the French franc had
an advantage to be gained
loan would cost 7 or 8 percent,
been eliminated, and that the new
interest. 08 These conwhile the old loans cost only 5 or 6 percent --- Page 151 ---
REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION
siderations were of no great
was intent on dominating importance to the United States, which
Haitian finances.
Faced with Dartiguenave's
loan, the State Department obstinacy in refusing to sign the new
issued by the "Military Government considered using an executive order
Proclamation, but the
of Haiti" under the Martial Law
of Borno as the
impasse was eliminated with the
new client-president in June, 1922. Borno inauguration
promised to pass the loan contract within
had earlier
assuming office. 90 The 1922
three or four days of
City Bank, which bid 92.137 refunding loan was awarded to National
Haitian
and sold $16 million of
government bonds on the
thirty-year
96%. 100 The bonds were
American market at a price of
ernment revenues and supported by a general lien on Haitian govyielded 6.25 percent interest
maturity. The loan permitted the
when held to
settlement of pending foreign
refunding of earlier debts, the
system of revenue
claims, and reform of the cumbersome
vided little in the pledges associated with the old debt, but
had
way of extra funds for economic
prono clear financial
development and
it consolidated,. advantage over the earlier French loans, which
The 1922 loan committed the United
term supervision of Haitian
States government to longto protect the interests of finances, since it would be called upon
fully paid. The loan
American bondholders until the loan was
tion and rationalization effectively completed the 1921-22
of the occupation, which
reorganizaa static, efficient, and internally
now emerged as
forth, SO long as Haiti remained disciplined organization. Hencenotice in
quiet, the occupation attracted little
Washington or in the American
States foreign policy was concerned,
press. So far as United
news. President
who
no news from Haiti was good
independence Harding,
had championed the cause of
during the 1920 election
Haitian
sonal interest in the occupation
campaign, took little pertreaty officials with his
beyond trying to replace
State
own political appointments: 102 competent
Hughes repeatedly expressed a desire
Secretary of
and limit the extent of martial
to withdraw from Haiti
in 1924 that he had no intention law, and remarked to Joseph Grew
of
America because the
intervening anywhere in Central
country and the
would
any extension of the situation that existed Congress
not support
in Haiti and the Domini-
ed the cause of
during the 1920 election
Haitian
sonal interest in the occupation
campaign, took little pertreaty officials with his
beyond trying to replace
State
own political appointments: 102 competent
Hughes repeatedly expressed a desire
Secretary of
and limit the extent of martial
to withdraw from Haiti
in 1924 that he had no intention law, and remarked to Joseph Grew
of
America because the
intervening anywhere in Central
country and the
would
any extension of the situation that existed Congress
not support
in Haiti and the Domini- --- Page 152 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
wrote: "We do not wish to remain
can Republic. In 1928, Hughes
as we can do SO with assurance
in Haiti. We wish to leave as soon
and a disregard of
that there will not be a recurrence of bloodshed which might require
the obligations of international intercourse Government." ?2 108 This was
renewed interposition on the part of our
issued during the
a stale rehash of State Department press releases
to
administration. No practical measures were contemplated
Wilson
withdraw American troops, or move up the
rescind martial law,
in the treaty. Within Haiti the
1936 termination date stipulated
base or shift responsiOccupation did little to broaden its political Calvin Coolidge, who
bilities to Haitian subordinates. President
thought little about Haiti, remarked:
want to withdraw. We had some plans to withdraw.
Of course, we
there for the purpose of maintaining
We have there a few marines-sent American interests, and, incidentally,
peace and order and protecting
also the Haitians. But the
perhaps more than incidental, for protecting request that we continue the
Government of Haiti sent a very strong
occupation, and that we have done.1"4
and ill-informed. Several
This statement was, at best, haphazard William H. King, George W.
United States senators, especially continued to make sporadic attacks
Norris, and William E. Borah,
offered an amendment to
the
during the 1920s. King
on
occupation
bill providing that no money be spent
a 1922 military appropriation the Dominican Republic, and Nicarato maintain marines in Haiti,
vote of 43 to 9.105 In general,
gua, but the motion was defeated by United a
States after the 1921-22
Haiti received little attention in the continued to sit on Haiti withreorganization, and the Occupation until the strikes and riots of 1929.
out any spectacular developments --- Page 153 ---
4D
From Faustin Wirkus and
The United States fleet
Dudley Taney, The White
elaborate
in
(Garden King Cièy, of La Gonêve
observance of protocol Port-au-Prince and
harbor in 1917 for
N.Y., 1931)
Dartiguenave. One of the public
diplomatic honors for
a visit that featured
markets is in the foreground. President Philippe Sudre
The Bureau de Port at
tomshouses were of Cayes. Custo the United States special interest
bankers, and investors government,
ties collected there because duimports constituted on the exports and
of the revenue of the Haitian major part
ernment,
govCourtesy of Mrs. Virginia A, White --- Page 154 ---
-
A street scene in
from the fields Fort-au-Prince about 1920, The
Courtesy of Mrs. Virginia A. White
The major export through item the city streets to the mill marrow-gatuige train hauled
Haitians had long had was coffee, which was sold where it was refined for sugar cane
close cultural and economic primarily to the French, with local use.
ties.
whom
The National Palace,
after the previous Fort-au-Prince, home of Haiti's
Courtesy of Mrs. Virginia A, White
palace was blown up in 1912; it presidents. This
was completed building was begun
during the occupation.
Fort-au-Prince about 1920, The
Courtesy of Mrs. Virginia A. White
The major export through item the city streets to the mill marrow-gatuige train hauled
Haitians had long had was coffee, which was sold where it was refined for sugar cane
close cultural and economic primarily to the French, with local use.
ties.
whom
The National Palace,
after the previous Fort-au-Prince, home of Haiti's
Courtesy of Mrs. Virginia A, White
palace was blown up in 1912; it presidents. This
was completed building was begun
during the occupation. --- Page 155 ---
I
-
-
*
of the National Geographic Society
Photograph by Clifton Adams, courtesy
fashions, and language
tiles, furniture,
of the elite of Haiti. The awnings,
The lifestyle
were French.
home and family in the
interior A peasant of the island about 1917
From World's Work Truth Magazine, Library
courtesy of Sojourner --- Page 156 ---
a A 12
A unit of the Haitian From World's Work Magazine, courtesy of
army prior to United States Sojoumer Truth LAbrary
intervention
The Gendarmerie
From World's Work Magazine,
occupation
d'Haiti, developed and officered
courtesy of Sofourner Truth
by United States marines LAbrary
during the --- Page 157 ---
courtesy From of World's Sofourner Work Magazine,
President Dartiguenave Truth Librani
courtesy From World's Work
minister of foreign affairs (right) and his
of Sojourner Truth Magazine,
who signed the treaty
Louis Borno,
a Marine General Eli K. Cole
Library
the United. States. Borno between Haiti and
city official of Hinche and (left) with
guenave as
succeeded DartiSecretary of the
Assistant
president in 1922.
velt during Roosevelt's Navy Franklin D. Roose1917 visit to Haiti
P
*
(front Colonel right), Littleton W. T. Waller, Commander Courtesy of Marine Corps Museum,
who was to lead negotiating a caco with Haitian leaders in Marine Expeditionary
Quantico
revolt in 1919, is in the October, 1915,
Forces in Haiti
front row, third Charlemagne from the Peralte,
right. --- Page 158 ---
American Brigadier General John H. Russell,
Haiti
High Commistioner to
Courtesy of Marine Corps Museum,
Quantico
/
a
S
Alen
under Prisoners the at the national penitentiary,
Courtesy of Marine Corps
supervision of marine officers Fort-au-Prince, of the
making footgear Museum, for Quantico
Gendarmerie d'Haiti
the military --- Page 159 ---
-
W
:
*
In 1921 tales of Marine
From Literary Digest, courtesy of
senatorial
Corps atrocities in Haiti
Rutgers Unicersity
was met by investigation. demonstrators When the committee
and Santo
Library
Your Congo?" "Shall
carrying banners reached
Domingo in resulted in a
trayed in Haiti." The Haiti Be Your Belgium?" bearing "The such Port-au-Prince inscriptions as "Shall November, it
committee reported in favor of American People Have Been Haiti Be
continuing the occupation. BeR
LISTEN SON!
DO UNTO YOUR BROTHERS
AS YOU'D HAV'EM DO
UNTO YOU. SAWYP.
A cartoon by Private Paul
ner which appeared in the WoyshMagazine for April, 1917 Marines
&
se
a I
THR
-
MISSIONARY
Courtesy U.S. Marine of Historical Corps, Dieiston,
Washington --- Page 160 ---
SAAN
Unloersity Library
Courtesy of Prinoston
built in 1926, one of many govGarde d'Haiti, Port-au-Prince, Department of Public Works
National Headquarters, erected by the Occupation's
erment buildings
-
Pictorlal Section, Washington
Courtesy of U.S. Marine Corps Combat
with Haitian guide about 1919
Marine patrol --- Page 161 ---
-
Corps Combat Pictorial Section, Washington
Courtesy of U.S. Marine
two marines disguised as
leader, after his assassination by
to undermine antiCharlemagne Peralte, caco
was circulated in an attempt Christ crucified,
Haitians in 1919. This photograph the posture of the corpse suggested
resistance; but to Haitians
of Peralte's martyrdom.
American
enhanced the legend
and the photograph
lal Section, Washington
Courtesy of U.S. Marine Corps Combat
with Haitian guide about 1919
Marine patrol --- Page 161 ---
-
Corps Combat Pictorial Section, Washington
Courtesy of U.S. Marine
two marines disguised as
leader, after his assassination by
to undermine antiCharlemagne Peralte, caco
was circulated in an attempt Christ crucified,
Haitians in 1919. This photograph the posture of the corpse suggested
resistance; but to Haitians
of Peralte's martyrdom.
American
enhanced the legend
and the photograph --- Page 162 ---
c
-
he
Students at work in the shop of the Service
Courtesy of Princeton Uniceraity
Technique's industrial school
Library
at Jacmel
hesA
Rural school at Carefour Ségur,
Courtesy of
one of many school
Princeton Unioeratty Library
buildings erected by the Occupation --- Page 163 ---
Courtesy of
Princeton Unioersity Library
The wharf at Petit-Godve the before Ocand after improvements by of Public
cupation's Department
Works in 1928
Courtesy of
Princeton Untoersity Library
The River Grise irrigation system by
before and after improvemnent sysThe original
the Occupation. built by the French in colonial
tem, Domingue, fell into disrepair
St.
after independence.
- --- Page 164 ---
Presidents Sténio Vincent Courtesy of U.S. Marine Corps Combat
Cap-Haitien in 1934
and Franklin D. Roosevelt
Pictorial Section, Washington
during Roosevelt's goodwill visit to
-
The President's
Courtesy of U.S. Marine Corps Combat
upon its arrival Commission at
for Study and Review of
Pictorial Section, Washington
pointed by President Port-au-Prince Hoover
on February 28, Conditions in the
withdraw from Haiti,
to try to determine when 1930, The Forbes Republic of Haiti
control-free elections arranged which the removal of the and how the United Commission, apStates withdrawal did
were won
American High
States should
not take place until decisively four by Haitian nationalists. Commissioner and for
years later,
But United --- Page 165 ---
/
Racial and
Cultural Tensions
The period from the 1922 financial and
tion to the 1929 strikes and riots
administrative reorganizability, and relative economic
was a time of peace, political stacontinuity in the administration prosperity in Haiti. There was strong
Russell and client-President
of the occupation, with General
and Haiti produced a series of Borno serving throughout the period,
on the international coffee good coffee crops in years when prices
the United States made
market were high. During this
with American
a determined effort to indoctrinate Haitians period
concepts of political morality,
ciency, and to teach Haitians modern
pragmatism, and effiskills through manual-technical
agricultural and industrial
were largely unsuccessful because education programs. These efforts
which tended to undermine
of racial and cultural prejudices
disciple relationships.
the development of effective masterInstead of modeling after
many Haitians came to despise them.
the Americans,
Racism and awareness of black racial
factors in Haitian social,
origins had been important
American intervention. White intellectual, and political life before the
of skin pigmentation, had
somatic norms, especially lightness
mining social and economic remained status
significant criteria in deterFrench colonial
after the departure of the white
elite of independent population in the early nineteenth century, and the
Haiti persisted in copying French styles and
to undermine
of racial and cultural prejudices
disciple relationships.
the development of effective masterInstead of modeling after
many Haitians came to despise them.
the Americans,
Racism and awareness of black racial
factors in Haitian social,
origins had been important
American intervention. White intellectual, and political life before the
of skin pigmentation, had
somatic norms, especially lightness
mining social and economic remained status
significant criteria in deterFrench colonial
after the departure of the white
elite of independent population in the early nineteenth century, and the
Haiti persisted in copying French styles and --- Page 166 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
its assertions of cultural
social mannerisms as means of justifying self-conscious efforts to win
sophistication and refinement. The
cultural refinerespect by achieving a high level of white-European of
black or African
ment and the concomitant repudiation
any in Haitian indeby a strong pride
heritage were complemented
The few white foreigners in
pendence and national sovereignty. deference, and white travelers
Haiti were not treated with especial
and even superiority
attitude of racial equality
noted a prevailing
with the servility of blacks in the United
that contrasted sharply
States."
marines landed in 1915 they brought concepts
When American
that had not held sway in Haiti since the
of racial discrimination
driven out a hundred years before. At
white French colonials were
forces and the
between the occupying
first there was some contact
attended social functions at elite
Haitian elite. American officers
and were received in elite
clubs, danced with Haitian women,
Butler later recalled
homes. Gendarmerie Commandant Smedley Haitians had been readily
how American reluctance to mingle with at the National Palace:
overcome at a 1916 Gendarmerie ball given shied a little from the
"When the American officers came in, they
entirely
belles; but, as the evening wore on, their shyness
dusky
wore off.":
of white males
American racial mores did not prohibit mixing interracial conwith either blacks or mulattoes, and in this case Butler, in his
furthered by heavy drinking.
viviality was apparently claimed that he counted fifteen American
flamboyant autobiography,
out on the grass of the palace
officers in full-dress uniform sprawled
courtyard the morning following the ball.* the early days of the
Whatever racial harmony existed during
wives and
occupation came to an end with the arrival of American at the 1922
families in 1916.* An American businessman testifying
Senate Hearings stated:
the American officers had free and complete social
Up to that time
both in their families and in their
intercourse with the Haitians, of the women of the occupation this peaceclubs. . . With the coming
upset, the women having a natural
ful state of affairs was completely and method of thinking, to dancing
aversion, due to their former training
the ball.* the early days of the
Whatever racial harmony existed during
wives and
occupation came to an end with the arrival of American at the 1922
families in 1916.* An American businessman testifying
Senate Hearings stated:
the American officers had free and complete social
Up to that time
both in their families and in their
intercourse with the Haitians, of the women of the occupation this peaceclubs. . . With the coming
upset, the women having a natural
ful state of affairs was completely and method of thinking, to dancing
aversion, due to their former training --- Page 167 ---
RACIAL AND CULTURAL TENSIONS
the
intercourse with the Haitians, men or women;
and general social
objecting for the same reason."
husbands of these women also strongly
intercourse between white women and
The taboo against social
axiom of American
with black blood was a long-standing
Gunnar
anyone In his classic study An American Dilemma (1944),
racism.
intermarriage and sexual intercourse
Myrdal ranked "the bar against
tenet of American racial
involving white women" as the cardinal
sysa comprehensive
discrimination." 6 This tenet was supported by
from contact
barriers which isolated white women
tem of interracial
resulted in the general social
with blacks and, in its broadest aspects,
segregation of the races.
Americans instituted
Following the arrival of the white women, American society,
Crow racial segregation in Haiti. In polite
with the
Jim
the explanation that
this racial segregation was justified by
became socially selfarrival of the women the American colony "snobbishness" but
sufficient and that segregation did not indicate backgrounds. One
reflection of different cultural and linguistic
was a
that "I can't see why they
American officer remarked to a traveler
as I do with
wouldn't have a better time with their crowd, just
to be exmuch too systematic
mine." >> 7 Segregation was, however,
accepted, mutually agreeplained simply as the result of casually interests. The American
in cultural and social
able divergences the social center of the American colony, was
Club, which was
the only blacks
closed to all Haitians, even the client-president; the Haitian waiters."
allowed to participate in club functions social were clubs to Haitians, elite
After the closing of the American those Americans, chiefly civilclubs continued for a time to receive
with Haitians, but
ians, who chose to continue their associations racial hostility intensified.
this courtesy was largely withdrawn as
insisted on
traveler observed that military personnel
be
An American
while American businessmen tended to
strict racial segregation,
toward the Haitians:
more gracious
majority of our officers in Haiti are
By chance or design the great shun
but the most unavoidable interSoutherners, and they naturally
any the chief bones of contention
course with the natives. This is one of
civilians engaged in
between the forces of occupation and the American color-line, contend that the
business. The latter, while still keeping a
to continue their associations racial hostility intensified.
this courtesy was largely withdrawn as
insisted on
traveler observed that military personnel
be
An American
while American businessmen tended to
strict racial segregation,
toward the Haitians:
more gracious
majority of our officers in Haiti are
By chance or design the great shun
but the most unavoidable interSoutherners, and they naturally
any the chief bones of contention
course with the natives. This is one of
civilians engaged in
between the forces of occupation and the American color-line, contend that the
business. The latter, while still keeping a --- Page 168 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
should be treated more like human beings. They
natives of education
the indifference to industrial advancement,
deplore the narrow viewpoint,
of the officers, and the latter retalithe occasional schoolboy priggishness business man as synonymous with moneyate by considering the term
to the natives for the sake of trade."
grabbing and willingness to cater
between the marines and the small
Irrespective of differences
effective racial segreganumber of American businessmen in Haiti,
facet of the occupaestablished as an important
tion became firmly
concentrated around
tion. The American colony in Port-au-Prince were created for
special Catholic masses
its own neighborhood, hotels that catered to American guests adopted
Americans, and local
Jim Crow standards."
those involving white
Overt incidents of racial hostility, especially
and mutual
reinforced the tendency toward segregation
women,
attended by all official Port-au-Prince
resentment. At a reception
of the Navy Roosevelt in
during the visit of Assistant Secretary with Haitian women but
January, 1917, American men danced with Haitian men. One of RooseAmerican women refused to dance
few American women
companions noted that "very
velt's traveling
the
began, most of them
were inside of the house after
dancing outside. Many of them had
walking or sitting in the large gardens
into the dancing rooms
been forbidden by their husbands to come
incidents
had
99 11 This and other awkward
until the Haitians
gone.
and American women, such
involving contact between Haitian men to American lady guests
Haitian
offering their arms
as
gentlemen
the breakdown of social relations durand being rejected, hastened
Edna Taft, an American
ing the early years of the occupation." book A Puritan in Voodoo-Land
white woman whose remarkable of racism at the time of Ameri-
(1938) illustrates the pervasiveness color line mixing socially with
withdrawal in 1934, broke the
by
can
personal trauma and guilt. Miss Taft
Haitian men and experienced father would turn over in his grave and
recalled warnings that her
and the palms of my hands were
remembered "trembling all over,
and shaking hands with
wet with cold perspiration" on first dancing
Haitian men. 18
with Haitians were severely limited by the
White female contacts
in 1916 and 1917. Subsequent
implementation of racial segregation
1938) illustrates the pervasiveness color line mixing socially with
withdrawal in 1934, broke the
by
can
personal trauma and guilt. Miss Taft
Haitian men and experienced father would turn over in his grave and
recalled warnings that her
and the palms of my hands were
remembered "trembling all over,
and shaking hands with
wet with cold perspiration" on first dancing
Haitian men. 18
with Haitians were severely limited by the
White female contacts
in 1916 and 1917. Subsequent
implementation of racial segregation --- Page 169 ---
RACIAL AND CULTURAL TENSIONS
of the color line, such as the annual stag New Year's
transgressions
for Americans, rarely involved
party given by the client-president isolation of American women,
white women." Despite the social
Haitians remained a threat
possible breaches of racial etiquette by
especially with the
to the peace and tranquillity of the occupation, the strikes and riots of
intensification of hatred that accompanied and American chargé
1929. In August, 1930, the brigade commander describing a grave
reports to the State Department
sent alarming
incident involving an "insult to a white
and "unprecedented"
Haitian returning from a political
woman" that occurred when a
marine sergeant by the arm
grabbed the daughter of a
meeting
manhandled by a marine corporal. This potentially
and was, in turn,
hushed up by American authorities,
explosive incident was carefully
the safety and morale of the
who considered it a serious threat to
about shielding their
occupation." Extreme American sensitivity all the more offensive to the
women from contact with Haitians was
about livbecause American men showed no compunction
Haitians
mistresses."
ing openly with Haitian
the sanctity of American women,
In addition to difficulties over
Haitians and Americans was
another source of open clashes between enlisted men on liberty. Drinkdrunkenness by marines, especially since the early years of the
ing and whoring had been problems
some Haitians to render
occupation, and marine rowdiness inspired Moindre Contrôle" (use withthe initials U.S.M.C. into "Use Sans
Mal Costumé" (a sloppy
out the least control) and "Un Salaud observers noted that marines
bum). A number of American civilian about their cavalier treatunder the influence of alcohol bragged
and "gooks," and
ment of Haitians, disparaged them as "niggers" Haitian
Finanoffensive to
pride."
otherwise behaved in a manner
the breakdown of social
cial Adviser W. W. Cumberland ascribed
and improprieties
relations with the Haitian elite to boisterousness to have joint social
by marine officers: <6 . . when there were efforts
too much and
ebullient officer would drink a little
activities some
which would offend the Haitians.
then would say or do something Cumberland recalled that after
Then we were all in trouble." contacts were "largely confned
these unfortunate incidents social
might say
to formal and official functions . . where you behave themof officers who knew how to
only a select group
breakdown of social
cial Adviser W. W. Cumberland ascribed
and improprieties
relations with the Haitian elite to boisterousness to have joint social
by marine officers: <6 . . when there were efforts
too much and
ebullient officer would drink a little
activities some
which would offend the Haitians.
then would say or do something Cumberland recalled that after
Then we were all in trouble." contacts were "largely confned
these unfortunate incidents social
might say
to formal and official functions . . where you behave themof officers who knew how to
only a select group --- Page 170 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
to a
would be in attendance and incidents were reduced
selves
author noted that the elite Club
minimum." 1 19 A visiting American
Americans in military uniBellevue had a standing rule forbidding
enter its doors which dated back to a 'socially objectionable"
form to
Commandant Butler early in the
incident involving Gendarmerie
occupation. a
Americans and Haitians, which usuOvert altercations between
Haitian elite, became
ally involved marines and the hypersensitive and measures taken
less frequent with effective racial segregation
and enforce
commanders to seclude the marine garrison
by marine
and tact. In 1927 Marine Corps Commandant
standards of courtesy
that there were "very few, if
Lejeune wrote the State Department
officers of the Marine
points of contact with the Haitiens" by
any,
the policy established by High ComBrigade, who were following
as much in the
missioner Russell "to keep the military occupation
in
99 20 The marine garrison was concentrated
background as possible:"
and Cap Haitien and served
the two major cities of Port-au-Prince the Gendarmerie in times
exclusively as a reserve force to back up incidents with the local
of trouble. Marines were instructed to avoid
were subject to sepopulation, and those who mistreated Haitians
vere penalties. 21
led to the isolation
The establishment of Jim Crow segregation
who crossed the color line and to an anti-Ameriof those individuals
elite. Americans who associated with
can reaction by the Haitian
and ridicule by the American
Haitians were subjected to ostracism social contacts with conservaEdna Taft related that "My
colony.
natives shocked my American friends. . . . The
tive, upper-class
and whom I entertained felt keenly
Americans who entertained me
elite." The few American
ashamed of my interest in the dusky
their
married Haitian women were treated as outcasts by
men who
officer who married the niece of clientfellow countrymen. A marine
his former fellows for having
President Borno was denounced by
of racial
the service." >9 28 Because of the perverse workings
"disgraced
Madame Placide, an American white woman who
prejudice in Haiti,
ostracized by the American colony
married a Haitian, was not only
head of the American military mission to the
a Colonel Robert D. Heinl, Jr., first marine to be elected to the Club Bellevue
Duvalier government in 1959, was the 139. Heinl letter to me, July 20, 1970.
since the Butler incident. Seabrook,
denounced by
of racial
the service." >9 28 Because of the perverse workings
"disgraced
Madame Placide, an American white woman who
prejudice in Haiti,
ostracized by the American colony
married a Haitian, was not only
head of the American military mission to the
a Colonel Robert D. Heinl, Jr., first marine to be elected to the Club Bellevue
Duvalier government in 1959, was the 139. Heinl letter to me, July 20, 1970.
since the Butler incident. Seabrook, --- Page 171 ---
RACIAL AND CULTURAL TENSIONS
with the Haitians for having lowered herself,
but also lost caste
increased social prestige by virtue of
while her husband enjoyed
Faced with American racism, the
his marriage to a white woman."
Americans from most
elite drew a retaliatory color line, excluding social relations with other
Haitian social life while still maintaining
of ostracism, exThe elite set up its own system
white foreigners.
and Haitian families
cluding members of the client-government
with marines from elite society."
that fraternized
marked by both emulation of
The complex elite racial ideology, included disdain for Ameriwhite characteristics and intense pride,
servile. The
who were looked down upon as being
can blacks,
informed the State Department in
Haitian minister to Washington Haitians looked down upon American
1924 that even poor black
by direct contact with American
blacks. This attitude, strengthened President Harding from rewarding
racial discrimination, prevented
and resulted in the
black Republicans with Haitian appointments,
previously held
posting of whites to Haitian diplomatic positions in Haiti was all white,
by blacks." Thus the American presence
blacks.
the Marine Corps at that time did not accept
since
remained in effect throughout the OCWhile racial segregation racial hostilities was progressively ameliocupation, the problem of
to
of tactful and sympathetic personnel
rated by the appointment
Commissioner Russell pursued a
positions in the occupation. High friction, and his wife was one
policy designed to eliminate who racial went out of her way to be cordial
of several American women
number of Americans who treated
to Haitians. There were always a
and some, such as GenHaitians with respect and consideration, Commander Louis Mcdarmerie Commandant and later Brigade local customs and cultiCarty Little, made special efforts to observe of the office of high
relations." After the abolition
vate friendly
aftermath of the 1929 uprisings, successive State
commissioner in the
tolerant, and Brigade
Department ministers were conspicuously retained for Haitian duty beCommander Little was specifically
American author with
cause he was liked by the Haitians. In 1928 an was not characteregalitarian biases observed that the occupation of natives off sideized by Prussian swagger and the pushing racial
and
walks, but rather by an attitude of "kindly"
superiority
aloofness."
to observe of the office of high
relations." After the abolition
vate friendly
aftermath of the 1929 uprisings, successive State
commissioner in the
tolerant, and Brigade
Department ministers were conspicuously retained for Haitian duty beCommander Little was specifically
American author with
cause he was liked by the Haitians. In 1928 an was not characteregalitarian biases observed that the occupation of natives off sideized by Prussian swagger and the pushing racial
and
walks, but rather by an attitude of "kindly"
superiority
aloofness." --- Page 172 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
was by no means
The American attitude of racial superiority prejudice on the
simply a reflection of ignorance or exceptional literature of the period
The scientific
part of occupation personnel. that blacks were inherently inferior to
amply supported the idea
literature. Lothrop Stoddard,
whites, as did contemporary popular
White World-Suin his book The Rising Tide of Color Against when left to himself, as in
premacy (1921) noted that "the negroe
ways, >2 and argued
Haiti and Liberia, rapidly reverts to his ancestral would be likely to assert
that "No one except a doctrinaire liberal
right to indeIslanders had an imprescriptible
that the Andaman
owed its independence only to a
pendence, or that Haiti, which forever remain a sovereign-interturn in European politics, should
national nuisance." >> 29
writing for the scholarly
A University of California professor,
Haitian
Historical Review in 1927, compared thick
Hispanio-American and observed that "the Haitian lacks the
and American blacks
of his brother in the north" but
lips and nostrils and rolling eyes
92 80
traits of the negro type.
displayed the same "happy
also subscribed to prevailing racial
High-ranking military officers
An admiral who had
and concepts of black inferiority.
stereotypes
of Santo Domingo and administrative
served as military governor
in Haiti compared Haitians with
commander of the occupation
blacks in the American South:
contact with a superior
The people of Haiti have had no immediate of the United States have
cultivation and intelligence such as the negroes traits of negro character
had since their emancipation. . . . The same in Haiti, both good and bad;
that are found in the United States exist in evidence in Haiti than in
but I consider that the bad traits are more better control.
the United States, where they are under
General Russell observed that "The corpulent
In his reminiscences
states is rarely seen and the strapping
'mammy' of our southern
States still less frequently." In as-
"buck' of Africa and the United
Russell stated, "The elite
sessing Haitian cultural achievements, evolution but as a result of racial intercame not as result of racial
from 1919 to 1921 later
mixture.' >> 82 The Gendarmerie commandant officials had arrived with
recalled that one of the American treaty of the Negro Mind" from which
a book entitled "The Development
observed that "The corpulent
In his reminiscences
states is rarely seen and the strapping
'mammy' of our southern
States still less frequently." In as-
"buck' of Africa and the United
Russell stated, "The elite
sessing Haitian cultural achievements, evolution but as a result of racial intercame not as result of racial
from 1919 to 1921 later
mixture.' >> 82 The Gendarmerie commandant officials had arrived with
recalled that one of the American treaty of the Negro Mind" from which
a book entitled "The Development --- Page 173 ---
RACIAL AND CULTURAL TENSIONS
elite."
much to the annoyance of the Haitian
he quoted frequently,
well aware of the racial problems in
The State Department was that "As a rule the foreigner does not
Haiti. Russell reported in 1919
true of the American,
mix with the Haitien and this is especially in a business way. 99 84
who has little or nothing to do with them except Hoover to investigate
Commission, sent by President
The Forbes
of the 1929 strikes and riots, rethe occupation in the aftermath lie behind many of the difficulties
ported that "Race antipathies
and civil forces have met in
which the United States military Division of Latin American AfHaiti."a In 1927 an officer in the
fairs observed that
whether accidentally or not I do not know,
most of the Marine Officers,
between the educated
from the South and do not differentiate
come
of color. In general, the AmeriHaitian mulatto and any other gentleman
that any necessity
Officers I found to be incapable of understanding
can
even on the best of Haitians. Any genexisted for making an impression this
would be very unpopular
eral officer who issued an order on
subject the matter fully with Colonel
and would be considered a fool. I discussed
in Haiti.
[Myers), Commander of the Brigade
John Meyers
themselves were not devoid of conState Department officers
Secretary of State Francis
temporary racial prejudices. Assistant Senate Finance Committee in
White refused to testify before the Haitian loan policy was attacked
1932 when the State Department's White remarked, "I had no idea
by a visiting Haitian nationalist;
on the stand."s
of getting into an argument with a coon
made renewed efforts
After the 1929 uprisings the United States the American chargé
minimize racial friction. In August, 1930,
to
that most incidents of racial intolerance
at Port-au-Prince reported
rather than Americans, and that
were being manifested by Haitians
of the American
cordiality would prevail 'given the watchfulness of color prejudice on the
Government to prevent any manifestation for Haitian political agitapart of American officials in Haiti," except unfortunate incidents which
tion, which was "reinforced by certain of the Intervention.' 988
occurred during the early months
officials who would be
The advisability of recruiting occupation
out
the 1922
to the Haitians had been pointed
by
effort
"sympathetic"
the Wilson administration no special
Senate Inquiry. During
, and that
were being manifested by Haitians
of the American
cordiality would prevail 'given the watchfulness of color prejudice on the
Government to prevent any manifestation for Haitian political agitapart of American officials in Haiti," except unfortunate incidents which
tion, which was "reinforced by certain of the Intervention.' 988
occurred during the early months
officials who would be
The advisability of recruiting occupation
out
the 1922
to the Haitians had been pointed
by
effort
"sympathetic"
the Wilson administration no special
Senate Inquiry. During --- Page 174 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
personnel to Haiti, indeed, virtually
was made to send unprejudiced officials were appointed from the
all of the leading civilian treaty
prevalent: the
Deep South where racial prejudice was especially Louisiana
head of Wilson's Customs Service was a former
had been parish a
of the Customs Service
clerk; the second-in-charge Financial Adviser McIlhenny was from
Mississippi customs collector; of Public Instruction was a former
Louisiana; the Superintendent
representative,
schoolteacher; and the State Department
Louisiana
from Louisiana." 39 Irrespective of their
Minister Bailly-Blanchard, was
related to political obligations,
geographic origins, which probably selected with a view to their
Wilson's appointments were generally
who had hoped to reprofessional qualifications. Unlike Harding,
Wilson specifiblack
with Haitian appointments,
ward
Republicans
should involve consideracally stipulated that treaty appointments of McIlhenny as financial
tions beyond politics, although the posting 40
adviser was questionable in this respect. marine
both
number of observers believed that the
contingent,
A
administration and thereafter, consisted predomiduring the Wilson
United States trade commissioner, after
nantly of Southerners." A
businessman in
frank conversation with an American
an extremely
1922, reported:
that the bulk of the men in charge of policing, saniIt would appear
drawn from those States where the race
tation and other duties were
Texas, etc.--
question has always been a matter of delicacy-Louisiana, the black man was imported at
and that the Southern attitude towards
natives who might have
the beginning and has operated to alienate many
been useful.
G. Leyburn, in his book The Haitian
American scholar James
charge that the United
People (1941), made the unsubstantiated from Southern states to Haiti
States had deliberately sent marines "on the theory that they would,
in the early days of the occupation
know how to handle'
with Negroes,
from long acquaintance
While the 1922 Senate Inquiry
them." 48 This charge is dubious.
officer be charged with
specifically recommended that a marine
thereby inthe backgrounds of all men sent to Haiti,"
scrutinizing
selection policy might be administratively
dicating that a deliberate
burn, in his book The Haitian
American scholar James
charge that the United
People (1941), made the unsubstantiated from Southern states to Haiti
States had deliberately sent marines "on the theory that they would,
in the early days of the occupation
know how to handle'
with Negroes,
from long acquaintance
While the 1922 Senate Inquiry
them." 48 This charge is dubious.
officer be charged with
specifically recommended that a marine
thereby inthe backgrounds of all men sent to Haiti,"
scrutinizing
selection policy might be administratively
dicating that a deliberate --- Page 175 ---
RACIAL AND CULTURAL TENSIONS
I have found no evidence of any deliberate selection policy
feasible,
records. It is true that several prominent marines,
in Marine Corps
Commissioner Russell, were
notably General Waller and High
Commandant Butler,
Southerners, but others were not. Gendarmerie Pennsylvania Quaker
for instance, was a member of a distinguished Ann Hurst of Wellesley
family. In a 1964 undergraduate term paper, marine officers serving in
College investigated the proportion been of born in Southern states and
Haiti from 1916 to 1932 who had Southerners in the total United
found that the mean percentage of both the
of Southern
was
than
percentage
States population
greater and the percentage of Southern officers
officers in the Marine Corps
deals exclusively with officers and
serving in Haiti." Hurst's study
of enlisted men, who, as
does not delve into the important question contact with the Haitians.
officers of the Gendarmerie, were most in 1921 and 1924 show that
statistics for periods in
Marine recruiting
for the corps as a whole were not disproSouthern enlistments
whether or not there was a disproportionately large.* 46 In any case,
marines in Haiti, the fact
portionately large number of Southern
indicates that Southobservers felt that this was the case
that many Southern racial codes were conspicuous.
erners and
severely disruptive in themselves, were comRacial prejudices,
Americans tended to resent the
plemented by cultural prejudices.
of the elite, and the elite
aristocratic French cultural sophistication
materialistic Amerilooked down on the uncultured, pragmatically on the scale of elite
Technical expertise did not rank high
cans.
oriented toward polite learning. In 1930 Amerivalues, which were
the State Department with
Stuart Grummon provided
can Chargé
on Haitian "Latin" mentality:
the following commentary
has a deep sense of the value of
In general, while the Anglo-Saxon
of democratic government to
social organization and of the obligation for the social welfare of the masses,
assume a large share of responsibility conviction of the value of democratic
and has in addition a profound the
is apt to scorn democracy
government, the Latin mind, on
contrary, and educational welfare of
and neglect activities looking to the health excels in collective action is apt
the masses. . . The Anglo-Saxon, characteristic who
of intense individualism
to be impatient with the Haitian
The action of the Haitian, in
inherited from the French regime. .
general, while the Anglo-Saxon
of democratic government to
social organization and of the obligation for the social welfare of the masses,
assume a large share of responsibility conviction of the value of democratic
and has in addition a profound the
is apt to scorn democracy
government, the Latin mind, on
contrary, and educational welfare of
and neglect activities looking to the health excels in collective action is apt
the masses. . . The Anglo-Saxon, characteristic who
of intense individualism
to be impatient with the Haitian
The action of the Haitian, in
inherited from the French regime. . --- Page 176 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
emotion
with the Latin in general, is in the main directed by
common
which in the main dictates the action of the Anglorather than by reason,
Saxon. 47
Russell expressed a similar view when he reHigh Commissioner
that "Haitian mentality only recogported during the 1929 uprisings
is
nizes force, and appeal to reason and logic unthinkable." with and was
American hostility to Latin cultural traits merged In 1917 Brigade
from racial prejudice.
sometimes indistinguishable
Commander Cole stated:
who constitute the majority
The Negroes of mixed type [mulattoes), have the general characteristics of
of educated people and politicians,
praise, excitable, changeable,
such people the world over-vain, double-faced. loving Many of them are highly edubeyond belief illogical, and
must always be doubted."
cated and polished, but their sincerity
on the part of many Americans to
There was also a tendency
who were looked
identify all Haitians with the black peasantry, Cole remarked that "fully
down upon as ignorant and uncivilized. and ignorant beyond de75 percent are of a very low mentality
and
a Haitian
scription," > and "No matter how much veneer
and polish under strain
have, he is absolutely savage under the skin vicious Amerimay
s? 50 Haitians were caught in a web of
reverts to type."
The several facets
from which there was no escape.
can prejudices
racist hostility to blacks, disof American prejudice, specifically
culture, and condescension
paragement of "Latin" and Continental
and reinforced each
toward illiterate peasants, were interrelated
communicaother to form a formidable barrier to Haitian-American
and
at all levels of the occupation.
tion
cooperation
Americans and the Haitian elite was
The cultural clash between
Americans, who subscribed to
all the more exacerbated because the
were repulsed
political ideologies of democracy and egalitarianism, fundamental to the social
by the very concept of elitism that was Haiti. This revulsion, of course,
and economic position of the elite in and cultural elitism. During
ignored the paradox of American racial
military commanders
the early years of the occupation American
the aristocratic
trenchant in this respect, scorning
were especially
affection for the common
pomposity of the elite while expressing
Americans and the Haitian elite was
The cultural clash between
Americans, who subscribed to
all the more exacerbated because the
were repulsed
political ideologies of democracy and egalitarianism, fundamental to the social
by the very concept of elitism that was Haiti. This revulsion, of course,
and economic position of the elite in and cultural elitism. During
ignored the paradox of American racial
military commanders
the early years of the occupation American
the aristocratic
trenchant in this respect, scorning
were especially
affection for the common
pomposity of the elite while expressing --- Page 177 ---
RACIAL AND CULTURAL TENSIONS
rooted in ideals of democratic
people. This attitude was firmly
tendency based on
egalitarianism. It also indicated an escapist level of equality, and
American inability to cope with blacks on a contacts in which the
corresponding preference for those interracial
in all reby Western standards, were clearly superior
Americans,
Commandant Butler, for instance, expressed
spects. Gendarmerie
that wears vici kid shoes with long
disdain for the "1 per cent
but was very fond of his "ape
pointed toes and celluloid collars,"
"faithful slave" to the
man" black servant Antoine, who was a toward the peasants was
The American attitude
Butler children."
officer who served in the back
often extremely patronizing. A marine version at least, was kind and
country and, according to his own and was well liked in return,
even affectionate toward the Haitians
brain cannot rise in life's
said, "A man who is born with a semi-ape's
percent of the
That was the kind of brain ninety
competition.
Haitian peasants seemed to have."s soon to be appointed high
In 1921 Brigade Commander Russell, sincere concern for Haiti, but
commissioner, stated that he had a
the
uneducated
lie entirely, however, with
huge
that "sympathies
the
action of an inappremass of Haitiens who have by
despicable for years in a bondage
ciable few of their countrymen been kept
that is akin to slavery." 58
programs were
American educational and economic development undermine the privileged
all designed to favor the peasants and of the Division of Latin Ameriposition of the elite. In 1926 the chief
that "The aim
Affairs wrote Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg
can
of Haiti has been to beneft the country as a
of our Occupation
The
class which
whole, and especially the peasants. . . .
political
hostile
debarred from the spoils of office is consequently
has been
whereas the great mass of the people is favorable
to the Occupation,
Borno
subscribed to
and friendly to it." 64 Client-President
strongly class system
policy of breaking down the established
the American
crime" of elite exploitation of the imand eliminating the "social
also enhanced the
poverished masses. 55 Ironically, the occupation
mulattoes were
political position of the elite; under the Americans, for the first time
installed in the presidency and major Cabinet posts
twelve
eleven of the preceding
in many years. Before Dartiguenave, contradiction was probably
presidents had been black. The apparent
favorable
to the Occupation,
Borno
subscribed to
and friendly to it." 64 Client-President
strongly class system
policy of breaking down the established
the American
crime" of elite exploitation of the imand eliminating the "social
also enhanced the
poverished masses. 55 Ironically, the occupation
mulattoes were
political position of the elite; under the Americans, for the first time
installed in the presidency and major Cabinet posts
twelve
eleven of the preceding
in many years. Before Dartiguenave, contradiction was probably
presidents had been black. The apparent --- Page 178 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
for well-educated collaborators,
the result of American preference black strongmen who had been
as opposed to the less-polished choices may also have been influprominent in the past. American this would be further evidence
enced by white somatic norms. If so,
for
element in the avowed special sympathy
pointing to the escapist
replacing the collaborators
the black masses. With elite nationalists
of Haitian politics conafter the 1929 uprisings, mulatto domination
tinued until the "black revolution" of 1946.
egalitarian
disparity between the democratic,
The ideological
elite, compounded by previously
Americans and the aristocratic
further
racial and cultural antagonisms, was
complicated
mentioned
that the elite and the occupaby the different levels of sophistication
cultural tradiwithin their respective
tion personnel exemplified
observed that the elite were
tions. One American woman journalist
man and his wife
layers in culture above the army or navy
"so many
must feel ashamed of his country's reprethat the visiting American
officer after several drinks asks him,
when an
sentatives-empecially
'How do you like the big niggers?"
not characterized by
The marine officer corps of this period was finesse attained in later
the higher levels of education and cultural elite looked down on
The cosmopolitan, culturally refined
years.
and crass materialism. In 1930 American
American lack of manners
that members of the elite were
Chargé Stuart Grummon reported
nature and confident that
of the American practical
"contemptuous
them in a distinctly
their own suavity and politeness . . placed practical-minded Amerisuperior position to the average eminently
appear-
>> 57
Minister
Bailly-Blanchard's
can. Acts such as American
attire and Financial Ading at the National Palace dressed in sports unwitting refusal to
blatant and apparently
viser Cumberland's French custom of the visiting dignitary paying first
follow the polite
offended the sensibilities of the proud
call on the local dignitary
American lack of
and formal elite." The elite likewise deprecated of foreign lansavoir-faire, as exemplified by American ignorance wrote Secretary
The chairman of the 1922 Senate Inquiry
not a
guages.
that he was "amazed to find in Haiti
single
of State Hughes
or Marine Corps who spoke
officer of the United States Navy
59 American rowdiness
French with perfect accent and fluency."
and apparently
viser Cumberland's French custom of the visiting dignitary paying first
follow the polite
offended the sensibilities of the proud
call on the local dignitary
American lack of
and formal elite." The elite likewise deprecated of foreign lansavoir-faire, as exemplified by American ignorance wrote Secretary
The chairman of the 1922 Senate Inquiry
not a
guages.
that he was "amazed to find in Haiti
single
of State Hughes
or Marine Corps who spoke
officer of the United States Navy
59 American rowdiness
French with perfect accent and fluency." --- Page 179 ---
RACIAL AND CULTURAL TENSIONS
also offended the
elite, as when
an elite piano recital given by
guests sitting in the garden at
were bombarded
a graduate of the Paris
by rocks thrown from the
Conservatory
a drunken marine officer. 60 Such
neighboring dwelling by
animosities, were
incidents, given the various other
ability of alcohol in magnified Haiti out of proportion. The abundant availin the United States
at a time when Prohibition was in force
rowdiness. Despite tended to aggravate the problem of marine
during the
numerous indignities which Haitians suffered
haughtiness; occupation, many of them maintained their
one elite lady remarked
pride and
the Americans had
to a 1934 French visitor that
copied Haitian
rather than the other
fashions, imported from France,
The overall Haitian way around,
far reaching in its
reaction to the occupation was complex and
comed the American consequences. At the outset, some Haitians weleconomic
intervention as a means of ending
chaos, and a small minority of the elite
political and
ing to collaborate with the Americans
were always willby
client-goverments" 62 The
participating in successive
shock of American intervention majority, however, were hostile. The
to the coming of the
was cataclysmic for the elite, Prior
social
Americans, their commanding
position had been unchallenged; the elite
economic and
tocracy which arrogantly dominated the
constituted an aristion, political advantages,
masses in terms of educawealth, and economic
were all the more complacent in their
privilege. The elite
lege because Haiti was isolated from exercise of aristocratic privielite, for local purposes, the
the outside world, making the
of black political
masters of all creation. The dominance
alter the social and strongmen qualified but did not fundamentally
economic hierarchy. This
lege was rudely shattered by the
idyllic world of privican patterns of racial
Americans, who, practicing Amerimulattoes and blacks discrimination, did not differentiate
or between educated and
between
down upon all Haitians, irrespective of
illiterate, but looked
and degree of
admixture of white blood
Under American achievement, as simply "Negroes" or
- 63
rule, the elite was not only
"niggers."
Jim Crow racial discrimination
subjected to humiliating
their privileged
by white Americans but also lost
dent American position as the dominant group in Haiti to the resicolony. The elite were confronted with the
realiza-
patterns of racial
Americans, who, practicing Amerimulattoes and blacks discrimination, did not differentiate
or between educated and
between
down upon all Haitians, irrespective of
illiterate, but looked
and degree of
admixture of white blood
Under American achievement, as simply "Negroes" or
- 63
rule, the elite was not only
"niggers."
Jim Crow racial discrimination
subjected to humiliating
their privileged
by white Americans but also lost
dent American position as the dominant group in Haiti to the resicolony. The elite were confronted with the
realiza- --- Page 180 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
in the face of American power and their
tion of their own ineptitude national affairs in such a way as to
proved inability to manage in the first place.
have prevented the occupation
and limitations and
The forced realization of their own failings culture left educated
the pressures of daily exposure to American
values
of intellectual crisis. Suave Continental
Haitians in a state
situation. All the old bases of elite
were clearly irrelevant in the new identification with white French
pride and self-respect, most notably black culture, were undermined
culture and condescension toward
to attack elite culby the occupation. Haitian intellectuals began the American interventural values and social attitudes shortly after Price-Mars's La Vocation
tion, the most incisive effort being Jean and
the irresponsible,
which described how
why
de Télite (1919),
effective national leaderself-centered elite had failed to provide because the intervention
ship. The failure was especially apparent
period of elite intelhad taken place in the midst of an impressive sought to replace disSome Haitians now
lectual accomplishments. idealism with American pragmatism, materialcredited Continental
Client-President Borno was an adism, and technical efficiency.
of American values was, howvocate of this approach. Adaptation intellectuals because of American
ever, repulsive to most Haitian
racial and cultural bigotry.
among
common reaction to the occupation, especially
A more
was to reject both the effete emulayounger Haitian intellectuals,
culture of the Amerition of French culture and the new pragmatic in black and African oricans in favor of seeking national identity based their pride and self-respect
gins. Educated Haitians who had
to be scorned and hucareful emulation of white culture, only
on
the white American invaders, now began
miliated as "Negroes" by
cultural heritage. New intellectual
to search for an indigenous black
Thaitianisme, and
movements, known variously as Tindigénisme, and glorified black
emphasized Haitian ethnography
Tafricanisme,
studies, notably Price-Mars's pioneer
folk culture. Ethnographic
investigated and romanticized
work Ainsi parla Yoncle (1928),
and, by tracing Haitian
Haitian folklore, religion, and language demonstrated that blacks
origins to advanced civilizations in Africa, studies by Haitian intelhad a history of their own. Many of these recognized that Haiti was
lectuals of the génération de Toccupation
aitianisme, and
movements, known variously as Tindigénisme, and glorified black
emphasized Haitian ethnography
Tafricanisme,
studies, notably Price-Mars's pioneer
folk culture. Ethnographic
investigated and romanticized
work Ainsi parla Yoncle (1928),
and, by tracing Haitian
Haitian folklore, religion, and language demonstrated that blacks
origins to advanced civilizations in Africa, studies by Haitian intelhad a history of their own. Many of these recognized that Haiti was
lectuals of the génération de Toccupation --- Page 181 ---
RACIAL AND CULTURAL TENSIONS
facets but emphasized that African
a mixed culture with European
basic attitudes and
characteristics predominated in determining
ways of thinking. 84
folk culture was also manifest in the
Interest in ethnography and
to the occupation. Prior to
reaction of Haitian poets and novelists
had imitated French
the American intervention Haitian writers romantic and idealistic topics.
literary styles and dealt mainly with
often called "la littérature
The literary reaction to the occupation,
featuring the Haitian
engagée, >> had a strong social orientation, This problack literature
and his African and black heritage.
peasant
manifestations of the world revolutionary
was one of the earliest
Aimé Césaire and Jeanphenomenon which the Martinican poet
French West
65 In his article "The
Paul Sartre labeled "négritude." (1961), G. R. Coulthard traces
Indian Background of 'Négritude"
of Haiti: e
in
the roots of négritude to the American occupation the first prise de conscience,
Haiti is to be found the first awareness, and it is the unbroken continuity
of the Negro in the white world, that forces the conclusion that to
of the theme in Haitian literature
of négritude grew out
large extent, historically, the concept
a very
situation. 99 66
of the Haitian
about the occupation stressed American
Haitian novels written villain of Stephen Alexis' Le Nègre
racism and vulgarity. The
Seaton, is probably a take-off on
Masqué (1933), Major Smedley the fictional character Smedley
Marine Major Smedley Butler;
Haitians and drives
Seaton is pictured as a crude racist who despises
La Blanche
Cadillac automobile." 67 Virgile Valcin's
a dazzling
girl who passes for white,
Négresse (1934) describes a Haitian
but is abanand then has a baby daughter,
marries an American,
when the American husband finds out
doned along with the baby
who is still attracted to
that she is really a mulatto; the husband,
after the divorce. 68
the girl offers to set her up as his mistress sentiments of interliterature of the period also expressed
"Engagée"
white oppression and a Marxistnational black solidarity against
lower classes. 69 The leading
oriented sympathy for the Haitian Roumain, founded a fledgling
Haitian novelist of the period, Jacques
Communist party in 1934.
also included a certain
The Haitian reaction to the occupation that undertaken by the
amount of active political resistance, such as
baby
who is still attracted to
that she is really a mulatto; the husband,
after the divorce. 68
the girl offers to set her up as his mistress sentiments of interliterature of the period also expressed
"Engagée"
white oppression and a Marxistnational black solidarity against
lower classes. 69 The leading
oriented sympathy for the Haitian Roumain, founded a fledgling
Haitian novelist of the period, Jacques
Communist party in 1934.
also included a certain
The Haitian reaction to the occupation that undertaken by the
amount of active political resistance, such as --- Page 182 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1984
by
but overt resistance was effectively suppressed
Union Patriotique,
During the 1920s Haitian
the Occupation until the 1929 uprisings. centered around local newspolitical opposition to the occupation and frequently jailed, and also
papers, whose editors were promptly complaints about the occupation
included several attempts to bring
of Nations." 70
before international bodies such as the League who neither collaboThere were some Haitian political activists but simply expressed
rated with the occupation nor opposed it,
a 1929 desecrafrustration and contempt. A marine officer reported
tion of the Dessalines statue in Port-au-Prince as follows:
[sic] statue affair has brought
The investigation into the Dessaline's which involves the younger class of
out another side of Haitien politics to 22 years, are ANTI-EVERYTHING,
Haitien. These people, mostly aged Their up attitude is strictly anti all that
even Dessalines [a national hero].
of Haitien politics. Their claim
might have caused the present condition
because, had they not
is that their fathers and forefathers done be in wrong, the condition it is today. They
done wrong, the Republic would not
the opposition and the Occuare against their parents, the Government, of the Younger people's leagues of
pation. . . Such is the sentiment
Haiti."
raised the possibility that marines on
Subsequent information
the statue rather than nihilistic
liberty might have desecrated described above indicates the
Haitian youths, but the attitude
people after fifteen years
serious disaffection of some Haitian young was written just four
The above report
of American occupation.
months before the 1929 student strikes.
which acted as barThe various racial and cultural antagonisms
by mundane
Haitian-American cooperation were augmented
riers to
military occupations. Haitians
hostilities attendant to most foreign
to the occupation
resented being ruled by foreigners, and resistance and patriotism.
rallied around the central theme of nationalism took over the most
Haitians also resented the fact that Americans themselves. The American
expensive houses and neighborhoods for
best
of town, and
in Port-au-Prince was located in the
part
colony
Americans lived at Cayes a was known locally
the street on which
social lives
row. 92 72 Americans enjoyed pleasant
as "millionaires'
e Also known as Les Cayes and Aux Cayes. --- Page 183 ---
RACIAL AND CULTURAL TENSIONS
and could afford high standards of living. A 1927 Department of
Commerce pamphlet stated that the "average" American family in
Haiti employed four servants." Marines and their families, especially enlisted men who would have been relatively poor in the
context of contemporary United States society, were the most affluent social stratum in Haiti. Americans who worked for the civilian
branches of the occupation were paid higher salaries than were
Haitian employees who did comparable work; an American office
worker in the Service Technique was paid $150 per month, while a
Haitian doing the same work was paid $35 per month." All these
factors contributed to and helped sustain the racial and cultural
impasse.
that the "average" American family in
Haiti employed four servants." Marines and their families, especially enlisted men who would have been relatively poor in the
context of contemporary United States society, were the most affluent social stratum in Haiti. Americans who worked for the civilian
branches of the occupation were paid higher salaries than were
Haitian employees who did comparable work; an American office
worker in the Service Technique was paid $150 per month, while a
Haitian doing the same work was paid $35 per month." All these
factors contributed to and helped sustain the racial and cultural
impasse. --- Page 184 ---
Uplift - The
Prospects
The basic American policy decisions that
intervention, the continuation of the
resulted in the original
and the establishment of
occupation after World War
an authoritarian
I,
American military high commissioner
government under an
international considerations.
were determined by broad
The United States
strengthen its strategic position in the
intervened to
military control after the
Caribbean, and it retained
terminate the
war mainly because it could not
occupation and because
gracefully
maintain political and economic
self-imposed commitments to
out military force. The
control could not be fulfilled withcommitments to National strategic buildup, the installation of and
consolidation of the
City Bank of New York, the insistence on
tion of European Haitian debt in American hands, the eliminaand economic influence, and the imposition of effective
control were all part of a
political
ican hegemony in the Caribbean. larger effort to achieve Amerpotential of other Caribbean
Compared with the economic
and Venezuela, Haiti itself countries, especially Mexico, Cuba,
most of the major American was relatively inconsequential. By 1920
of the pending loan
objectives in Haiti, with the exception
obviated. American consolidation, had been either achieved or
longer threatened by military domination of the Caribbean was no
controlled the Banque Germany or anyone else, American interests
cal control
Nationale, and continued financial
was assured by the 1917 treaty
and politiopen for an influx of American
extension. The way was
capital by virtue of the alien land- --- Page 185 ---
UPLIFT-THE PROSPECTS
ownership clause in the 1918 Constitution;
lucrative capital investment had been
conversely, prospects for
experiences of American
dampened by the frustrating
and by the realization that entrepreneurs Haiti
who had invested in Haiti
development.
had limited potential for economic
The Wilson administration,
any vital purpose in maintaining recognizing that there was no longer
draw American troops in 1919 but military found control, attempted to withwithdrawal would have resulted
that it could not. American
embarrassing overthrow of the in victory for guerrilla forces, an
denunciations of American
client-goverment, and vociferous
would have clearly discredited imperialism by Haitian nationalists that
refused to accept the minimal the United States. So long as Haitians
by the State
American control deemed
Department and threatened instead
necessary
American presence, it was deemed
to obliterate the
in Haiti. In terms of the vital
necessary to maintain a garrison
policy, the occupation became purposes of United States Caribbean
signed to sit on Haiti until
a stagnant holding operation dewithdrawn without the
American troops could be gracefully
and without
prospect of a violent anti-American reaction
abandoning long-term
investors. With respect to American commitments to American
occupation remained an awkward plans for the Caribbean, the
earlier type of colonial conquest anachronism, reminiscent of an
Quite apart from the international already in disrepute.
led to the intervention and
policy considerations that had
occupation,
were to determine the
most Americans involved with
duration of the
tion would and should benefit the
Haiti felt that the occupadant Butler stated that his ambition Haitians. Gendarmerie Commanblack man's country" and
was to "make Haiti a first class
a sense our task formed a civil another marine officer observed that "in
missionaries who
counterpart to the work of
were devoting their lives to
Christian
icans, as representatives of
these people. P1 Amernation, felt that they could an advanced, modern, industrialized
Haiti with American
transform backward, underdeveloped
pected to pull Haiti technology and practical ingenuity. They exfollow the formula of up the by its bootstraps if only Haitians would
In
American success story.
keeping with its numerous ulterior motives and
style of the occupation, the United States
the imperious
applied only select ingre-
that "in
missionaries who
counterpart to the work of
were devoting their lives to
Christian
icans, as representatives of
these people. P1 Amernation, felt that they could an advanced, modern, industrialized
Haiti with American
transform backward, underdeveloped
pected to pull Haiti technology and practical ingenuity. They exfollow the formula of up the by its bootstraps if only Haitians would
In
American success story.
keeping with its numerous ulterior motives and
style of the occupation, the United States
the imperious
applied only select ingre- --- Page 186 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
formula to the uplift of Haiti. While
dients of the American success
and effiAmerican concepts of civil service reform, pragmatism, democintroduced into Haiti, political
ciency were systematically Americans felt that the Haitians were too
racy definitely was not.
for them. The United States
ignorant to know what was good eliminated popular control over
disbanded the Haitian legislature, communal elections. In the rare
the presidency, and even canceled
at the local level
instances when popular elections were permitted
High Comto the approval of the occupation.
results were subject
1926 communal elecmissioner Russell reported that experimental and that the client-governtions "were not altogether satisfactory" the elected councils, and
ment had rescinded them, dissolved
instead." In 1925 the
appointed its own communal commissions Affairs recorded that he and
chief of the Division of Latin American elections under present
General Russell felt "that congressional because most Haitians
conditions would be little more than a farce"
of the meanthat they would have no conception
were "so ignorant
ing of an election." s 8
the electorate did not prevent
Misgivings about the capacity of
to pass the prothe Occupation from using national plebiscites amendments in
Constitution of 1918 and constitutional
American
instances when Haitians were encour1928, but these were the only
In both cases there was
aged to participate in democratic processes. Democratic institutions
outcome."
no possibility of an anti-American elections would have resulted in
were suppressed because popular
and would have thus weakvictory for anti-American candidates This, according to the Occuened the authority of the Occupation.
of material and moral
pation view, would have hindered programs
uplift.
success formula to Haiti, Occupation
In applying the American
of
and
officials placed special emphasis on concepts pragmatism were basic
Indeed, pragmatism and efficiency
technical efficiency.
policies to the extent that abstract
in the formulation of Occupation
self-determination
American ideals and principles, such as national violated in order
and the rights of individual citizens, were blatantly
dominated
results. The practical approach
to achieve practical
Haiti just as it dominated the internaAmerican efforts to reform
the Occupation.
of material and moral
pation view, would have hindered programs
uplift.
success formula to Haiti, Occupation
In applying the American
of
and
officials placed special emphasis on concepts pragmatism were basic
Indeed, pragmatism and efficiency
technical efficiency.
policies to the extent that abstract
in the formulation of Occupation
self-determination
American ideals and principles, such as national violated in order
and the rights of individual citizens, were blatantly
dominated
results. The practical approach
to achieve practical
Haiti just as it dominated the internaAmerican efforts to reform --- Page 187 ---
UPLIFT-THE PROSPECTS
Haiti policy. In a 1926 article entitled
tional aspects of America's
>9 Ulysses B. Weatherly
"Haiti: An Experiment in Pragmatism,
argued:
free there must be an elaborate procBefore the people can be really
the material equipment
building; there must be constructed
the
ess of
function, and there must be developed
through which society may
essential in a democintelligence and the civic spirit which are better absolutely that a nation be allowed
The impossibilists argue that it is
of waste, mudracy.
results for itself, even at the expense
to work out these
insist that intelligent guidance from
dling and violence. The pragmatists the process of national growth and
without may sometimes accelerate
save much waste."
of European white-man's-burden
These sentiments were clichés
with fresh confidence,
colonialism. In Haiti American pragmatists,
made the
which had SO recently
expected that intelligent guidance, could not help but bear fruit.
United States a great world power,
and efficiency, with the
This American fixation on pragmatism mainly through material
implied corollary that progress is effected small number of Haitians
achievements, had been popular among a Haitians had been tradion the eve of the intervention, but most became more SO in reaction to
tionally hostile to these concepts and cultural
In 1927
contact with American racism and noted prejudices. that Haitians were
Financial Adviser W. W. Cumberland
"Human psycholparticularly resistant to American-style progress: and experience. A
of tradition, heritage
ogy is a strange complex
for present-day enlightenment and
more unsatisfactory background than in the case of Haiti.".
progress could hardly be devised
there were
Given the wide divergence of cultural backgrounds, viable synthesis of
of sympathy from which a
few common points ideals could be created. Many of the elite
Haitian and American
toward French cultural sophistiretained their idealistic orientation culture of their own and remained
cation, the masses had an esoteric
intellectuals and political
skeptical of American ways, and younger American. The Americans,
activists vigorously opposed everything for Haitian cultural traditions; the
for their part, had little respect
observed that
director of the American School in Port-au-Prince Haitian is hopelessly old-
"The daily life and performances of the
, viable synthesis of
of sympathy from which a
few common points ideals could be created. Many of the elite
Haitian and American
toward French cultural sophistiretained their idealistic orientation culture of their own and remained
cation, the masses had an esoteric
intellectuals and political
skeptical of American ways, and younger American. The Americans,
activists vigorously opposed everything for Haitian cultural traditions; the
for their part, had little respect
observed that
director of the American School in Port-au-Prince Haitian is hopelessly old-
"The daily life and performances of the --- Page 188 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
untactful Amerfashioned or even ludicrous to the proverbially
ican."
indoctrinate Haitians in the advanThe Occupation attempted to
through the example of
tages of modern technology and efficiency bridges, and government
American genius in constructing roads,
subordinates who
buildings, and by direct tutelage of Haitian
of Public
under American supervisors in the Department
worked
the Gendarmerie, and the several other
Works, the Customs Service,
The American-sponsored
departments of the client-government. schooling in modern agricultural
Service Technique provided formal Haitians were already reluctant
and industrial technology. While and attitudes because of American
to assimilate American methods
of introducing American
the problem
racial and cultural prejudices,
confrontation with basic Haitian
pragmatism and efficiency involved and material rewards for work.
values and ambitions regarding work
while
held that manual labor was demeaning,
The elite traditionally
subsistence farming and were relucthe peasants were enmeshed in existence in outlandish experiments
tant to risk an already tenuous
progress. Financial
fundamental to American technological
that were
stated: "The peasants, living lives
Adviser Arthur C. Millspaugh
carefree and
indolent and shiftless, are enviably
which to us seem
be citizens of an independent selfcontented; but, if they are to
least a larger number of
nation, they must acquire, or at
governing them must acquire, a new set of wants."
doing fieldanthropologists and sociologists
After the occupation,
had to work hard to scratch a
work in Haiti found that peasants
competitive in merchanliving from poor soil and were extremely their immediate needs."
dising what little they produced beyond
Institute of Social
field
for the Smithsonian's
In 1952 a
ethnologist the resistance of Haitian peasants to technoAnthropology described
logical innovations as follows:
of chance, multiplied by the primiSubject to innumerable vagaries the
livelihood of the Haitian farmer
tiveness of his hoe technology,
very
factors over which he has
is at the mercy of a great many unpredictable therefore, to risk even greater inselittle or no control. He is not prone,
as he retains any doubt as to
curity by accepting new practices as long
the certainty of their immediate profit to him.10
field
for the Smithsonian's
In 1952 a
ethnologist the resistance of Haitian peasants to technoAnthropology described
logical innovations as follows:
of chance, multiplied by the primiSubject to innumerable vagaries the
livelihood of the Haitian farmer
tiveness of his hoe technology,
very
factors over which he has
is at the mercy of a great many unpredictable therefore, to risk even greater inselittle or no control. He is not prone,
as he retains any doubt as to
curity by accepting new practices as long
the certainty of their immediate profit to him.10 --- Page 189 ---
UPLIFT-THE PROSPECTS
little effort was made to fathom the
During the occupation very
failed to react enthusiintricacies of peasant culture. When peasants
as ignorant
astically to American technology, they were dismissed played an imand lazy. Here, again, racial and cultural prejudices
portant role.
stimulate Haitian participation by offering
Americans tried to
and efficient performance and
incentives for increased production
emby trying to create a competitive spirit among government customs posts on
The Customs Service graded the several
ployees.
which reflected accuracy and promptness
an elaborate point system
and awarded the winof returns and other criteria of excellence,
a 10 percent
with a suitably engraved loving cup plus
ning post
individual grading system penalized customs emsalary bonus. An
reduction when their performance
ployees with a 10 percent salary scale." A marine officer once stimufell below a specified numerical
awarding eighteen Ingersoll
lated a local house-building boom by
12 In general, howwatches as prizes to otherwise skeptical peasants." promises, and efforts
Haitians were not excited by American
failed
ever,
economic development by offering incentives
to encourage
miserably.
offered by the Service Technique,
Aside from the formal schooling
constituted the major
the several branches of the client-government subordinates. Haitian
of direct American tutelage of Haitian
area
from Cabinet officers to local justices of the
government employees,
and were forced to conpeace, were subjected to close supervision and efficiency. The Deform to American standards of competence Public Health Service assigned
partment of Public Works and the
and doctors in the
to American engineers
Haitians as apprentices would eventually take over by themselves.
expectation that they
efforts to imbue their Haitian subordiAmerican supervisors made
in American ideals of pragmatism
nates with the concept, implicit should perform effective public
and efficiency, that government
were public servants who
services and that government employees
This concept of politinecessarily must be honest and conscientious. traditional Haitian political
contrasted sharply with the
cal morality
of public office. Amerethic which recognized graft as a perquisite "Haitian politicians, in
Stuart Grummon observed that
ican Chargé
ians as apprentices would eventually take over by themselves.
expectation that they
efforts to imbue their Haitian subordiAmerican supervisors made
in American ideals of pragmatism
nates with the concept, implicit should perform effective public
and efficiency, that government
were public servants who
services and that government employees
This concept of politinecessarily must be honest and conscientious. traditional Haitian political
contrasted sharply with the
cal morality
of public office. Amerethic which recognized graft as a perquisite "Haitian politicians, in
Stuart Grummon observed that
ican Chargé --- Page 190 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
with those of the other backward Latin American countries,
common
ideal of government for the
have no conception of the Anglo-Saxon government solely as a means
beneft of the governed, looking upon of the governed." 18
of enriching themselves at the expense American officials scrutinized
Immediately after the intervention
employees who were dethe government payroll and eliminated
The Occupation virtuceased, not working, or grossly incompetent. rigorous accounting
ally eliminated wholesale graft by instituting Americans in charge of
and auditing procedures and by placing officials demanded honesty
government expenditures. Occupation subordinates and in most cases lived up
and efficiency from Haitian
service themselves."
to high standards of honesty and public
tied to AmerAmerican efforts to reform Haiti were inextricably did the creation of
administration of Haitian finances. Not only
ican
bureaucracy hinge upon systematic fiscal
an efficient government
and all Occupation uplift
reorganization, but the client-government Haitian
revfinanced
from
government
programs were
exclusively on the state of the Haitian
enues and were therefore dependent established by the United States.
treasury and on the fiscal priorities
on the repayment of
American financial policy placed first priority
the prosperHaiti's external debt to American bondholders. and During the advent of the
between the 1922 loan consolidation
ous years
American financial advisers used budWorld Depression in 1929
owed to American investors far
getary surpluses to pay off the debt
Funds available for
schedules.
in advance of required payment education and public works, were
development programs, such as
correspondingly limited.
virtually complete control over
The United States exercised had always been the key tactical
Haitian finances. Financial control
The Wilson administraobjective of American intervention policy. prior to the intervention,
tion had pressed for a customs receivership control of customs and govand the 1915 treaty featured American mention of other uplift possiernment finances while making scant
for developing a
bilities with the notable exception of provisions American financial
force. The treaty provided that an
native police
to coordinate Haitian
adviser be attached to the Haitian government
accord
suitable policies, and an additional
finances and recommend adviser exclusive control over drafting
in 1918 gave the financial
Haitian finances. Financial control
The Wilson administraobjective of American intervention policy. prior to the intervention,
tion had pressed for a customs receivership control of customs and govand the 1915 treaty featured American mention of other uplift possiernment finances while making scant
for developing a
bilities with the notable exception of provisions American financial
force. The treaty provided that an
native police
to coordinate Haitian
adviser be attached to the Haitian government
accord
suitable policies, and an additional
finances and recommend adviser exclusive control over drafting
in 1918 gave the financial --- Page 191 ---
UPLIFT-THE PROSPECTS
the Haitian budget, which
ment for approval,"
was then submitted to the
In the years between
client-governStates extended its financial
1922 and 1930, the United
under the presidency of Louis control beyond stipulated concessions
Borno, In 1929 General Russell stated:
The financial control now existing in Haiti has
growth. It goes far beyond the
been one of gradual
ent system of fnancial control has provisions been of the Treaty. . . . The pressioner largely
built up by the High
through a spirit of
Commisjudgement on the part of President cooperation, intelligence, and good
sions of the Treaty but is beyond the Borno. It does not rest on the provithrough the honest desire of President Treaty, an extension brought about
Haiti.1
Borno to rehabilitate and develop
Financial control was facilitated by the 1922
which entailed a pivotal
debt consolidation,
ican hands and the
reorganization of Haitian finances in Amerterm accountability acceptance by the
of
to American financial client-government longThe debt consolidation involved
interests.
mated between 1922 and
a series of three loans consum1922 Series A loan
1925, the largest of which was the initial
refunding Haiti's totaling $16 million floated for the
of
external debt. A
purpose
loan was used to refund the internal subsequent $5 million Series B
and to pay the awards made
debt from the 1912-14 period
sion; and a separate Series C loan by an international Claims CommisRailway bonds. Of the $15 million of $1.7 million refunded National
$6 million was used to refund the proceeds from the Series A loan,
holders, which had been worth
external debt to French bondof the franc during and after $21.5 million prior to the devaluation
and $2.2 million
World War I, and sums of $4.1
were paid to the Banque Nationale and the million
Railway, respectively. 18 Claims held against the
National
by the American-owned
Haitian government
exempted from the
Banque and Railway had been specifically
scrutiny of the international
established by a 1919
Claims Commission
loan covered $3.5 million Haitian-American awarded
protocol." The Series B
awards amounted
by the Claims Commission.
Financial
to less than 9 percent of foreign claims These
Adviser Millspaugh later referred
which
mass of pecuniary exaggeration. 9> 20
to as "a long-festering
The Series C loan was used to refund National
Railway bonds,
American-owned
Haitian government
exempted from the
Banque and Railway had been specifically
scrutiny of the international
established by a 1919
Claims Commission
loan covered $3.5 million Haitian-American awarded
protocol." The Series B
awards amounted
by the Claims Commission.
Financial
to less than 9 percent of foreign claims These
Adviser Millspaugh later referred
which
mass of pecuniary exaggeration. 9> 20
to as "a long-festering
The Series C loan was used to refund National
Railway bonds, --- Page 192 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF
the amortization
HAITI, 1915-1934
A loan. The
and interest of which had been paid by the Series
exchange of Series Cbonds for
at 75 percent of par value and
National Railway bonds
greatly reduced the
an attendant reorganization plan
tically ended its financial government's liabilities to the Railway and pracastrously expensive and involvement in what had been a disP.C.S. Railway continued to economically worthless enterprise. The
Roger L. Farnham drew operate under government
and
a lucrative
as
subsidy,
the National Railway by virtue of salary absentee receiver of
but the
a 1920 New York court
Railway no longer enjoyed the staunch
decision;
Department, and the American
support of the State
the Haitian government in
financial advisers tended to back
the extent of authorizing subsequent contract disputes, even to
stoppage of the subsidy."
Compared to the exorbitant loan flotations
intervention, Haiti received a
undertaken before the
the 1922-25 loans. The State relatively high rate of return for
itself to an offer for a $16 million Department loan
had originally committed
pany that would have netted the
by Lee, Higginson, and Comface value. Lee, Higginson made Haitian the
government 85 percent of
partment memorandum,
bid, according to a State Detive features would be held "upon the understanding that the competitrading points for
confidential and would not be used as
change in market conditions playing one banker off against the other," but a
ment and National
and pressure from the Haitian
City Bank forced Financial
governto reopen negotiations and ask for
Adviser Mellhenny
this, Lee, Higginson offered
competitive bids." Informed of
earlier bid, but the loan
to make a substantial increase in its
which made a low offer was of finally awarded to National City Bank,
Haitian
a $16 million loan that would
government 92.137 percent. 28
yield the
ican marines and complete American Despite the presence of Amerno better than the average for
financial control, this rate was
which were much more
Latin-American loans of the period,
corporate bonds
expensive than either internal
or the worldwide
American
1922 sixty representative
average for foreign bonds. In
vestors 4.9 percent while the American corporate bonds yielded inwas 7.5 percent. 24 The 7.9 average for new Latin-American bonds
Series A loan and the $5 percent yield of the $16 million Haitian
typical of Latin-American million Series B loan included, as was
loans of the period, a 4 percent bankers'
average for
financial control, this rate was
which were much more
Latin-American loans of the period,
corporate bonds
expensive than either internal
or the worldwide
American
1922 sixty representative
average for foreign bonds. In
vestors 4.9 percent while the American corporate bonds yielded inwas 7.5 percent. 24 The 7.9 average for new Latin-American bonds
Series A loan and the $5 percent yield of the $16 million Haitian
typical of Latin-American million Series B loan included, as was
loans of the period, a 4 percent bankers' --- Page 193 ---
UPLIFT-THE PROSPECTS
to National City Bank, which handled the
commission payable
loans. e
Committee investigation of foreign
At the 1932 Senate Finance Bank submitted a statement of its
bond transactions, National City
million Haitian loan of
loan flotations that listed the Series C $1.7
of face value
been sold to Haiti for 81.3 percent
1925 as having
spread of 14.7 percent to National
resulting in a phenomenal that profit it had sold the bonds to the public
City Bank, which stated
is
inasmuch
of face value. 25 This information spurious
at 96 percent
sold by the Haitian government
as the bonds were never actually National Railway bonds. The 14.7
but were simply exchanged for National City Bank, which was the
percent profit registered by Latin-American transaction of the
bank's largest spread on any Financial Adviser Cumberland, a
1920s, represented, according to National City Bank had its Paris
speculative venture in which
National Railway
and inconspicuously buy up
branch gradually
that they would eventually
bonds at low prices on the assumption
Cumberland noted that
be redeemed by the Haitian government. neither from the point of
"the railroad itself had no value and that
any bonded
was it capable of supporting
view of assets or earnings
Bank profits represented the
indebtedness," and that National City
underwriting
of speculative risk rather than an excessive
rewards
of the dubious Railway bonds had, of
commission." Redemption
States control of the Haitian
course, been contingent on United
of Railway claims from
government and the specific exemption
commission.
investigation by the 1919 international claims but not outrageously
All in all, National City Bank enjoyed a high
Its Haitian
exorbitant rate of profit on its various Haitian operations. according to a highsubsidiary, the Banque Nationale, averaged,
year from 1924
$160,000 total profit per
ranking Haitian employee,
treasury and its commerto 1930 for its services as the government service was basic to the
cial banking activities." 27 The treasury
with
consistent profit returns on into the Depression years, for
Banque's
60 percent of total Banque deposits
government funds averaging
Series A and B bonds from the Haitian govThe National City Bank purchased nominal value and then sold the bonds to the American
ernment at 92.137 percent of nominal value. United Nations, Department of Economic
public at 96.5 percent of Capital in Latin America, pp. 7-8.
and Social Affairs, Foreign
asury and its commerto 1930 for its services as the government service was basic to the
cial banking activities." 27 The treasury
with
consistent profit returns on into the Depression years, for
Banque's
60 percent of total Banque deposits
government funds averaging
Series A and B bonds from the Haitian govThe National City Bank purchased nominal value and then sold the bonds to the American
ernment at 92.137 percent of nominal value. United Nations, Department of Economic
public at 96.5 percent of Capital in Latin America, pp. 7-8.
and Social Affairs, Foreign --- Page 194 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
funds deposited with Nathe years 1922-35." Haitian government earned either no interest or less
tional City Bank in New York
banks, but the Amerthan could be obtained from other competitive consistently applied
ican financial adviser and the State Department succeeded in amelioratpressure on National City Bank and partially derived from the 1910 and
ing blatantly exploitative practices which
1922 Banque charters." 29
with the State Department, National
In negotiating the 1922 loans
give public
Bank insisted that the United States government
City
intention to retain control over Haiti. An October,
assurances of its
million loan protocol had stipulated
1919, Haitian-American $40
duly
by the Presithat "the control by an officer or officers
appointed of the United States,
dent of Haiti, upon nomination by the President revenues, will be
and allocation of the hypothetical
of the collection
of the loan after the expiration of the aforeprovided during the life
that "It is clearly
Treaty, > but the protocol also stated
said [1915]
does not in fact or by implication
understood that this Protocol
16, 1915, > and that
extend the provisions of the Treaty of September
within two
authorized loan would have to be consummated
the
of the protocol. 80 In 1921, National
years of the date of signature Mitchell wrote Secretary of State
City Bank President Charles E.
and definite
Hughes that "it will be necessary to include that a strong this control over
assurance by the United States Government the life of the loan until
Haitian finances will continue throughout
troops
bonds have been paid." - 31 The presence of American
all the
control were, of course, crucial to the
and commitments to long-term bonds on the American market and
successful flotation of Haitian favorable terms for Haiti. Distributo the proourement of relatively with Haitian bonds on the stock
tors of securities that competed United States was getting out. 82
market spread rumors that the
for a firm official stateReferring to National City Bank's request for publication on bond
ment on continuation of the occupation "I doubt if we ought to convey the
flyers, President Harding stated:
American supervision until
impression that we mean to maintain
however, that we will
the maturity of these obligations. I assume,
which
until conditions are established
maintain such supervision
American investors that Haiti has
will warrant the confidence of
99 88
stable order where her pledges are wholly acceptable."
reached a
tors of securities that competed United States was getting out. 82
market spread rumors that the
for a firm official stateReferring to National City Bank's request for publication on bond
ment on continuation of the occupation "I doubt if we ought to convey the
flyers, President Harding stated:
American supervision until
impression that we mean to maintain
however, that we will
the maturity of these obligations. I assume,
which
until conditions are established
maintain such supervision
American investors that Haiti has
will warrant the confidence of
99 88
stable order where her pledges are wholly acceptable."
reached a --- Page 195 ---
UPLIFT-THE PROSPECTS
would accept reversion to
The expectation that the bondholders at the time of United States
Haitian control, no matter how stable, In 1922 the State Departwithdrawal in 1934 proved unrealistic. commitment, but instead had
ment demurred from making a direct
statement
Financial Adviser McIlhenny make a public
American
that the United States then had
emphasizing the firm financial grip
flyer issued by National
Three pages of the four-page
over Haiti.
for the $16 million 1922 bonds consisted
City Bank as advertisement to the bank pointing out, with appropriof a letter from Mcllhenny the various guarantees of American
ate paragraphs underlined, included in the 1915 treaty." No mention
financial control that were
when the treaty expired in 1936.
was made of what would happen
of United States governSince the bonds ran until 1952, the extent
being moral
to the bondholders was ambiguous,
ment obligations and would become a major source of difficulty
rather than legal,
to terminate the occupation in
when the United States attempted In the end, despite the absence
the aftermath of the 1929 uprisings.
States
the United
government
of any explicit or legal commitments, the
of complicating the
stood by the bondholders even at
expense States retained financial
Good Neighbor policy. The United
new
withdrawal through a resident fiscal
control after the 1934 troop Haiti until 1941, when his functions
representative who remained in
which remained under
were transferred to the Banque Nationale,
paid in
until the bonds were completely
United States supervision
1947.
bonded indebtedness to American investors
Repayment of the
States administration of Haitian
remained the focal point of United
through the 1929 depresfinances from the 1922 debt consolidation and the 1915 treaty,
sion. By the terms of the loan agreements of customs receivership
service of the external debt and payment
revenues. American
constituted a first lien on all Haitian
debt
expenses
went further than this by consistently making
financial policy
contractual requirements and by building
payments far in excess of
of lean years. Financial Adup large cash reserves in anticipation
ending in
who held office for a four-year period
viser Cumberland,
that Haitian revenues were "enDecember, 1927, acknowledged development programs and that
tirely inadequate" for necessary
both for capital
"To remedy all of these defects large expenditures,
agreements of customs receivership
service of the external debt and payment
revenues. American
constituted a first lien on all Haitian
debt
expenses
went further than this by consistently making
financial policy
contractual requirements and by building
payments far in excess of
of lean years. Financial Adup large cash reserves in anticipation
ending in
who held office for a four-year period
viser Cumberland,
that Haitian revenues were "enDecember, 1927, acknowledged development programs and that
tirely inadequate" for necessary
both for capital
"To remedy all of these defects large expenditures, --- Page 196 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
85 Nevertheand for maintenance, will be necessary."
of
improvements
formulated a plan whereby only one-third
less, Cumberland
works
while twosurplus revenues were used for public of the projects, debt in advance of
thirds were applied to the retirement
Cumberland's avowed
requirements and to building a cash reserve." the most conservative
in conducting Haiti's finances "upon
bondholders and
purpose
the interests of American
basis" was to safeguard
87 This policy also saved interest
strengthen Haiti's credit standing." financial obligation to American
costs and shortened the period of
bondholders.
of actual requirements totaled $2.4
Debt reductions in excess and in several years debt payments
million for the years 1924-29,
obligations." 88 The Haitian
were more than double the contractual million in 1924 to $16.5 million
public debt was reduced from $24.2 1930 cash reserves would have
in 1930 and further application of
of
rapid
The policy emphasizing
reduced the debt to $12.6 million." cash reserves was later critidebt retirement and buildup of large which reported to President
cized by the 1930 Forbes Commission, better to have reduced taxation,
Hoover that "it might have been left the debt to work itself out during
especially the export tax, and
in the country where
its normal term, thus keeping more needed." money 40 In response to this
experience has shown it was badly
his
motives for
Cumberland stated that one of principal
argument,
debt retirement had been to give "ample
proceeding with rapid
in view of the uncertainty of Amerprotection to the bondholders" 1936 and that "if these gentlemen [the
ican financial control after been holders of Haitian bonds . . . their
Forbes Commission] had different." >7 41 In reviewing his four-year
conclusions might have been
Cumberland noted that his
tour, at the time of his resignation, the treasury in an admirable
"conservative policies" had "placed
by proportionate
position, but this had not been accompanied 42 Whatever the extent of
progress on the part of the population." the Occupation's financial prolost opportunities for development, establishment of Haitian finances on
certainly resulted in the
gram
had been
in the 1915 treaty."
a firm and solid basis, as
promised
into
as a tight fiscal manipulator has been incorporated as
e Cumberland's efficiency devices for by-passing electric meters, estimated
Haitian popular culture. Wiring
company's output, are known today as
bleeding half the American-owned Bernard power Diederich and Al Burt, Papa Doc: The Truth
"the Cumberland" in Haiti; York: McCraw-Hill Book Co., 1969), 270-71.
About Haiti Today (New
on
certainly resulted in the
gram
had been
in the 1915 treaty."
a firm and solid basis, as
promised
into
as a tight fiscal manipulator has been incorporated as
e Cumberland's efficiency devices for by-passing electric meters, estimated
Haitian popular culture. Wiring
company's output, are known today as
bleeding half the American-owned Bernard power Diederich and Al Burt, Papa Doc: The Truth
"the Cumberland" in Haiti; York: McCraw-Hill Book Co., 1969), 270-71.
About Haiti Today (New --- Page 197 ---
UPLIFT-THE PROSPECTS
Adviser Sidney de la Rue, who took over in March,
Financial
of
debt retirement,
reversed the policy supplemental
1929, sharply
in fiscal priorities was irrelevant because
but by this time the change
after the advent of the 1929
there were no more revenue surpluses needed to
up payments on
depression, and cash reserves were
the keep 1930s, when all other
the debt, which was serviced throughout default. Commenting on the
Latin-American countries went into
de la Rue observed:
previous policy of rapid debt retirement,
the anomalous situation of an adminThroughout the period we have
the intention of carrying on a development program at
istration expressing
the flotation of one or more new loans
which would make necessary
than the original
which could hardly have been more favorable
rates
surplus cash for retirement of a loan
issue, and at the same time using in 1922 to secure on comparatively
which it had been fortunate enough
favorable terms. 43
on the fact that previous policy had deliberWithout commenting interests at the expense of Haitian uplift,
ately favored American
in excess of requirements sugde la Rue argued that the payment borrowed is being used to pay off the
gested that "money recently
the
use for which it
debt without having been put to
productive "an admission that
obtained" and that this policy was
was originally
the administration is unable to use borunder normal conditions
>2 44 Where Cumberland pointed with
rowed funds for productive use.
Haitian credit standpride to savings in interest costs and improved
de la Rue
ing that had been achieved by rapid debt retirement, have been more imcontended that prospective creditors would funds. As it turned out, the
pressed with productive use of excess irrelevant after 1929, when
question of credit standing became
interest only to AmerHaiti's relatively high credit standing was of
were unavailsince new funds for development
ican bondholders,
able in any case.
of the Occupation had been hampered
The development programs
$2.4 million of the $16 million
by lack of funds from the outset. Only works, and Occupation of1922 loan had been allocated for public this sum since adequate
ficials were at a loss as to how to spend even substantial
of the
had not yet been developed." A
part intact until
programs $600,000 set aside for irrigation projects, was kept
sum,
abandoned in 1929." The priority
the contemplated projects were
unavailsince new funds for development
ican bondholders,
able in any case.
of the Occupation had been hampered
The development programs
$2.4 million of the $16 million
by lack of funds from the outset. Only works, and Occupation of1922 loan had been allocated for public this sum since adequate
ficials were at a loss as to how to spend even substantial
of the
had not yet been developed." A
part intact until
programs $600,000 set aside for irrigation projects, was kept
sum,
abandoned in 1929." The priority
the contemplated projects were --- Page 198 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
and creation of cash reserves during the
given to debt retirement
from 1922 to 1929 obviously left the
relatively prosperous period uplift program with proportionately
other facets of the Occupation's debt reduction exceeded requireless money. In 1927, when external
expenditures broke down
ments by $1 million, the leading budgetary
as follows: 47
Public debt
$2.68 million
1.44 million
Public works
1.28 million
Gendarmerie
.68 million
Public health
.50 million
Agricultural service
.40 million
Public instruction
funds for the development
The fact that Haitian government financial policy was all the more
programs were limited by American
development through prisignificant because hoped-for economic
capital investment did not materialize.
vate American
Haiti had been based largely on the
American hopes for uplifting
investors would finance and
expectation that American private
involving as it did
direct economic development. This expectation, assumed that investors
the ideology of free-enterprise capitalism, of extracting greater profits
would be drawn to Haiti by the prospect that their activities would
than could be obtained elsewhere and for Haiti. Americans would
engender residual economic benefits
feature of United
economic progress to Haiti as an attendant
would
bring
imperialism, since American entrepreneurs
States economic build Haiti while they were exploiting investcoincidentally help
up
officer prophesied
48 In 1921 a State Department
ment opportunities."
of French-colonial Saint Domingue
that the fantastic prosperity
auspices through an influx of
could be re-created under American
the land
safeguarded to prevent its monopolizing of
capital, "properly
9> and abetted by a program agriand driving the peasant class,"
officials were
cultural education.* 49 In practice, however, Occupation
Amerfaced with the dilemma of trying to encourage
constantly
simultaneously protecting Haiti against
ican investments while
for investment projects that
blatant despoliation. Since possibilities
to be severely limited
would be both equitable and lucrative proved barred what Financial Adand American officials conscientiously
through an influx of
could be re-created under American
the land
safeguarded to prevent its monopolizing of
capital, "properly
9> and abetted by a program agriand driving the peasant class,"
officials were
cultural education.* 49 In practice, however, Occupation
Amerfaced with the dilemma of trying to encourage
constantly
simultaneously protecting Haiti against
ican investments while
for investment projects that
blatant despoliation. Since possibilities
to be severely limited
would be both equitable and lucrative proved barred what Financial Adand American officials conscientiously --- Page 199 ---
UPLIFT-THE PROSPECTS
92 the
concessions;
Cumberland referred to as "unconscionable
viser
amounted to much. 50
influx of capital never
investments in Haiti had been
Prior to the intervention American concessions and special privibased on exploitation of government
The Occupation, by
leges rather than upon productive enterprise. American and other forgraft, incurred the enmity of most
discrimiending
complained about being
eign businessmen who frequently The largest American enterprise,
nated against by treaty officials.
(HASCO), engaged in a
the Haitian-American Sugar Company officials and the State Departrunning controversy with Occupation
and concessions which
ment over the honoring of special privileges of the Division of Latin Ameripredated the intervention. The chief
can Affairs noted:
intervention the treaty officials properly regarded
After the American
to the Haitian Government and
many of these special privileges as unfair and attempted to restrict their
detrimental to the welfare of the country,
for existing contractual
operation SO far as possible with due respect who have gone into the matof the Department
rights. . . . The officials whatever for the corporation in its efforts to retain
ter have no sympathy
concessions obtained by its predeand make the most of the onerous
which
from earlier Haitian governments . . new companies concescessors
fair terms and without seeking to profit by old
have gone in on
1915 have not made complaints." 51
sions obtained before
reluctance to sanction unfair concessions reState Department
1923 concession that would
sulted in the abortion of a proposed
to the Sinexclusive rights for petroleum exploration
have granted
monopolistic concession had been
clair Oil Company. A similar and State Department officials felt
denied to a British firm in 1916, could not turn around and grant
that under the circumstances they
52 Commenting on
the same concession to an American company.
A. N. Young
objections to the Sinclair concession,
the department's
Adviser stated that he did not think that
of the Office of Economic
in the region of our own "sphere
the United States could "do things
if done by others in regions
of influence' to which we would object interested." " 58 President Harding,
in which they claim to be specially
rocked by a series of graft
whose administration was then being
in June, 1923, that "If
scandals, wrote Secretary of State Hughes
Commenting on
the same concession to an American company.
A. N. Young
objections to the Sinclair concession,
the department's
Adviser stated that he did not think that
of the Office of Economic
in the region of our own "sphere
the United States could "do things
if done by others in regions
of influence' to which we would object interested." " 58 President Harding,
in which they claim to be specially
rocked by a series of graft
whose administration was then being
in June, 1923, that "If
scandals, wrote Secretary of State Hughes --- Page 200 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
sanctioned in Haiti I would
there are to be any private monopolies
of sponsorship
that the sanction be made after our surrender
prefer
there." 54
the old pattern of exploitative concessions
Prospects for replacing
projects quickly dimmed.
with viable, seif-supporting development
for economic
At the outset of the occupation, Haitian factor. potential Initial estimates by
development had been an unknown land of almost unexampled
Americans indicated that Haiti was "a
but sheer
"luxuriant" vegetation and that "nothing
fertility" with
them [the Haitians] from
lack of initiative and industry keeps
W. A. MacCorkle of
rich." s 55 In 1915 former Governor
becoming
West Virginia declared eloquently:
within its shores more natural wealth than any other
This island has
the world. By reason of its rich valleys and
territory of similar size in
known to man. All tropical
splendid mountains it has every temperature and fruits of the temperate
plants and trees, as well as the vegetables The best coffee known to commerce
climes, grow there in perfection.
in the earth are silver,
wild, without planting or cultivation : . .
of
grows
this island is more capable supporting
gold, copper, lead, iron . . able . to create wealth and diffuse happiness
life in all its phases, more land of its size on the face of the earth."
to its people, than any other
firm reported that the rural work codes
An investment consulting
and that labor was "ridiculously
were "all in favor of the employer" factor toward the success of any
cheap at present and will be a great
that this was
29 An American journalist, noting
agricultural enterprise.
and children, 99 stated that Haiti was
"no place for American women
for "a
rich in resources and that there were great opportunities little
> 67
fortune who wishes to go there with a
capital.
soldier of
of Haitian labor was indeed a real
The cheapness and abundance
investment: Haitian laborers
and continuing attraction to foreign for twelve hours of work. 58
were paid at the rate of 20 cents per day
passing laws to raise
Financial Adviser de la Rue argued against Haiti has is cheap laborwages in 1930, stating: "The greatest asset does not exceed the labor of
labor whose daily cost to an employer Should labor costs here be
other lands whose products are similar. where conditions are more
increased artificially, that capital will go
favorable." " 60
of Haitian labor was indeed a real
The cheapness and abundance
investment: Haitian laborers
and continuing attraction to foreign for twelve hours of work. 58
were paid at the rate of 20 cents per day
passing laws to raise
Financial Adviser de la Rue argued against Haiti has is cheap laborwages in 1930, stating: "The greatest asset does not exceed the labor of
labor whose daily cost to an employer Should labor costs here be
other lands whose products are similar. where conditions are more
increased artificially, that capital will go
favorable." " 60 --- Page 201 ---
UPLIFT-THE PROSPECTS
were SO low in Haiti that recruiting agents representing
Wages
United Fruit and General Sugar
most notably the American-owned about 20,000 Haitian laborers to migrate
companies annually induced
for seasonal work at $1 to $1.50
to Cuba during the mid-1920s
about all Haiti had to offer,
per day. 60 Cheap labor was, however,
for basic lack of
and this by itself was not enough to compensate
natural resources.
for economic exploitation and develOriginal high expectations
business ventures encounopment in Haiti diminished as American businessmen testifying at
experiences. American
tered frustrating
told stories of crop failures, tariff problems,
the 1922 Senate Inquiry
disruptive racism and lack of
insufficiency of natural resources,
and failure of the Occupacooperation on the part of treaty officials,
investment. 61 The only
conditions favorable to capital
tion to create
projects of the pre-1922 period
two major American development million cotton-growing enterprise
were floundering or defunct: a $1
died, and the American sugar
had failed completely when its crops
in 1921." In subHASCO, was forced into receivership
which
company,
HASCO developed into a profitable operation
sequent years
by 1928, and promising
tripled its initial 1918 sugar production in the mid-1920s; but otherAmerican sisal plantations were begun successful American private
wise there was little in the way of
investments indevelopment ventures." 63 While American sugar in 1929 and HASCO
creased from $7 million in 1919 to $8.7 million
other ventures,
over 1,000 men by the mid-1930s,
was employing
closed with heavy losses."
such as cotton and pineapple plantations,
by 1930
and manufacturing was disappointing:
Progress in mining
of commercial value and the few
there were no mining operations hundred men. 65 At the time of
new factories employed only several
investments consisted
withdrawal, when American capital
American
HASCO, and a sisal plantation, an Amerof the National Railway, that the "roseate predictions" of American
ican businessman stated
the Haitians would derive from
officials regarding the "benefits
American control had
economic developments" resulting from
the relative lack of
The problem was
"failed to materinlize.""
and had little
Haiti simply was not a rich country
natural resources.
American investors from more lucrative
to offer that could draw
opportunities elsewhere.
of
new factories employed only several
investments consisted
withdrawal, when American capital
American
HASCO, and a sisal plantation, an Amerof the National Railway, that the "roseate predictions" of American
ican businessman stated
the Haitians would derive from
officials regarding the "benefits
American control had
economic developments" resulting from
the relative lack of
The problem was
"failed to materinlize.""
and had little
Haiti simply was not a rich country
natural resources.
American investors from more lucrative
to offer that could draw
opportunities elsewhere. --- Page 202 ---
OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED STATES
economic potential, partially
illusions regarding Haitian
by systematic
American
business failures, were destroyed in the early
dispelled by early of Haitian resources undertaken lent to Haiti by
governmental surveys
and geological experts
extremely
1920s. American agricultural concluded that resources were light rainthe State Department
Survey of Haiti" reported mineral exports,
limited. A 1922 "Agricultural of crops, little hope for
six-month
fall, poor soil, poor outlook variety for pasturage." 67 A comprehensive United States Geologiand a negative technical experts lent by the
which was genersurvey by three
631-page report
no
resulted in a thorough
and disclosed
cal Survey
about agricultural development 68 A 1924 United States
ally pessimistic exploitable mineral resources." Haiti: An Economic
commercially Commerce pamphlet entitled
were
Department of
for agricultural development and "squatSurvey noted that possibilities of small-scale agriculture obtain clear
limited by the chaotic system made it difficult for investors to
which
ter sovereignty," tracts of land."
about potential for ecotitle to large
the original optimism
awareness
By the mid-1920s
being replaced by an increasing for Amerwas
rather than
nomic development headed for economic disaster
High Comthat Haiti was
In his 1925 Annual Report,
noting
ican-sponsored prosperity. made ominous reference to overpopulation, tends to increase
missioner Russell Malthus show that a population
only in
that "The laws of
while the food supply increases whose
progression
Cumberland,
in geometric progression." > 70 Financial Adviser debt retirement at the
arithmetic fiscal policies favored rapid recalled that the navy
conservative
programs, later
had once told him:
expense of development the Public Health Service
captain who headed
for this enormous
realize that you and I are largely we've responsible been here-you, because
Do you
that has come since reduced the death rate somecrop of pickaninnies financed it, and I because I have these poor innocent infants are
you have what's going to happen? Why the same starvation life that
what. Now,
and they will have just
going to grow up,
their parents had."
observed that "Haiti is
In 1929 Financial Adviser relative Millspaugh to its potential production,"
overpopulated even
death rates tended to "keep
already
birth rates and falling
and that rising
that you and I are largely we've responsible been here-you, because
Do you
that has come since reduced the death rate somecrop of pickaninnies financed it, and I because I have these poor innocent infants are
you have what's going to happen? Why the same starvation life that
what. Now,
and they will have just
going to grow up,
their parents had."
observed that "Haiti is
In 1929 Financial Adviser relative Millspaugh to its potential production,"
overpopulated even
death rates tended to "keep
already
birth rates and falling
and that rising --- Page 203 ---
UPLIFT-THE PROSPECTS
the masses near the level of primitive living. >> 72 The doubling of
the population in subsequent years coupled with continuing lack of
economic development bore out these morbid predictions.
With limited potential for economic development and consequent
absence of American investment capital, hopes for economic progress
devolved mainly on the Occupation itself. Government action was
circumscribed both by budgetary limitations and by free-enterprise
ideology with its narrow definition of the role of government in
economic matters. --- Page 204 ---
Uplift - - Success
and Failure
Even with the limitations
ideology and fiscal
imposed by free-enterprise economic
Occupation initiated priorities based on rapid debt
the
a number of impressive
retirement,
promote economic well-being. These
measures designed to
efforts, such as a plan by Mrs.
ranged from informal personal
sioner, to relieve hard times
Russell, wife of the high commisStates embroideries knitted among the elite by selling in the United
technical education
by Haitian ladies, to the comprehensive
economic dislocation program of the Service Technique.
the
caused by World War
During
went to the lengths of directly
I, the Occupation even
Colonel Russell, then
engaging in commercial transactions.
Brigade
wartime food shortage caused Commander, intervened to relieve a
arranging for the
by the curtailment of shipping by
modities from the client-government Navy
to purchase flour and other comthen sold to local wholesalers Department at contract prices; the flour was
small profit percentages."
and retailers, who were allowed only
and most economic activities This, however, was an emergency measure
The main contribution
were more conventional,
of the Occupation to
progress was the establishment of law and
Haitian economic
following complete pacification in 1920 order. During the years
conduct their businesses in
merchants were able to
expenditure of an average peace of and, moreover, profited from the
one thousand marine salaries. In
modities from the client-government Navy
to purchase flour and other comthen sold to local wholesalers Department at contract prices; the flour was
small profit percentages."
and retailers, who were allowed only
and most economic activities This, however, was an emergency measure
The main contribution
were more conventional,
of the Occupation to
progress was the establishment of law and
Haitian economic
following complete pacification in 1920 order. During the years
conduct their businesses in
merchants were able to
expenditure of an average peace of and, moreover, profited from the
one thousand marine salaries. In --- Page 205 ---
UPLIFT-SUCCESS AND FAILURE
the turmoil and incessant revolutions of the premarked contrast to
stability under the Americans
1915 period, peace and governmental and
public works
permitted the development of effective of productive roads and pubic buildand public health programs. Construction
continuity in
rate. Likewise,
ings proceeded at an unprecedented ending revolutions was pregovernment administration achieved by
reforms which greatly
requisite to a whole series of administrative and services to the
governmental services in general
improved
business community in particular. efforts to attract American capiThe Occupation made persistent
of the 1918 Constitution,
tal investments beginning with the passage and later included the 1928
which legalized alien landownership had been hostile to American busireform of Haitian courts, which
of which were undertaken
nessmen.? Public works projects, most
necessary communiafter the 1922 reorganization, helped develop
theoretications and public services; indeed, a German Geopolitik roads and
cian, writing in 1938, pointed to American-sponsored conceived as requisites
government services as having been expertly
and rationalized
Americans reorganized
of economic penetration."
for standardization of grades
Haitian customs duties and provided The Service Technique, which
of coffee which facilitated commerce.
conducted agricultural
encompassed a technical education program, and was helpful in
imported new breeds of livestock,
formal
experiments, cultivation. In addition to the various
uplift
developing sisal
individual Gendarmerie
programs promoted by the Occupation,
inclinations, to
officers did what they could, according to personal to include inhelp peasants at the local level and were required reports." All of
and commerce in their monthly
formation on crops
significant economic development
this, however, did not produce
remained oriented toward
since most Occupation uplift programs attract American capital increation of circumstances that would
vestment and this investment never materialized. Occupation officials
In trying to attract capital investments, of offering profitable opfaced with the dilemma
were always
while simultaneously fulfilling their
portunities, on the one hand, Haiti from spoliation, on the other."
moral responsibility to protect
Oil and United Fruit comProtracted efforts to induce the Sinclair
would
in Haiti failed because neither company
panies to invest
and commerce in their monthly
formation on crops
significant economic development
this, however, did not produce
remained oriented toward
since most Occupation uplift programs attract American capital increation of circumstances that would
vestment and this investment never materialized. Occupation officials
In trying to attract capital investments, of offering profitable opfaced with the dilemma
were always
while simultaneously fulfilling their
portunities, on the one hand, Haiti from spoliation, on the other."
moral responsibility to protect
Oil and United Fruit comProtracted efforts to induce the Sinclair
would
in Haiti failed because neither company
panies to invest --- Page 206 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
agree to terms deemed conscionable
The requirement that capital
by the State Department. 6
Haiti and the United States investment be advantageous to both
the problem of conflict of complicated all development plans, and
even at the personal level. Financial interests involved Occupation officials
drew up plans for a sisal
Adviser Cumberland personally
firm to develop sisal plantation and then induced an American
to be a major economic production into what eventually turned out
lously remained
achievement of the Occupation. He scruputhe
officially detached from the
employ of the Haitian
enterprise while in
owner shortly after his return government but was taken in as a part
no apparent
to the United States." There was
conspiracy to obtain undue concessions
government in this case, but the
from the clientprimary
question of where
interests as financial adviser
Cumberland's
berland also invested
lay remains ambiguous. Cumheavily in Haitian
names of his wife and mother,
government bonds in the
times when surplus
and, since he determined the exact
bonds on the
government revenues would be used to
open market, he was accused of having taken purchase
advantage of his position as financial adviser. 8
improper
Russell reported to Secretary of State
High Commissioner
of Cumberland's private bond
Kellogg that he had approved
expressed
dealings, but Russell had
surprise and disbelief when
previously
can businessmen's plot, led by
confronted with an Ameriincident. Cumberland stated Roger L. Farnham, to expose the
that he
early to avoid implications that he
deliberately sold the bonds
cupation personnel
was exploiting his
a
were subsequently forbidden
position. Ocsecurities. The ambiguity of Cumberland's
to invest in Haitian
ambiguity of the entire occupation,
role illustrates the larger
bility for the interests of both the charged as it was with responsiThe balance between
United States and Haiti.
States interests was clearly emphasizing Haiti's interests and United
with respect to the Haitian resolved in favor of the United States
a 1907 Franco-Haitian import trade. The Occupation abrogated
preferential tariff concessions commercial convention which had granted
to French imports as compensation for
57 and Cumberland then sold said them that he had purchased $12,000 face value
Series B bonds at 77 and a sold year later at 80; he then purchased Series B face bonds at
Jan. 8, 1928.
these at 88. SD 838.51A/76, Cumberland $10,000 to value
Kellogg,
interests and United
with respect to the Haitian resolved in favor of the United States
a 1907 Franco-Haitian import trade. The Occupation abrogated
preferential tariff concessions commercial convention which had granted
to French imports as compensation for
57 and Cumberland then sold said them that he had purchased $12,000 face value
Series B bonds at 77 and a sold year later at 80; he then purchased Series B face bonds at
Jan. 8, 1928.
these at 88. SD 838.51A/76, Cumberland $10,000 to value
Kellogg, --- Page 207 ---
UPLIFT-SUCCESS AND FAILURE
the fact that France
Haitian exports while annually French purchased upward of 50 percent of
percent of Haitian imports." 10 Prior products amounted to only about 5
vention, Secretary of State
to the abrogation of this conment against a charge that Hughes had defended the State
it was
Departtries to give special tariff
allowing Latin-American counee
concessions to
. the state of our commerce with
France by asserting that
by the fact that in 1923,
Haiti is sufficiently indicated
amounted to 84
imports from the United States into Haiti
France
percent of the total, whereas the
into Haiti constituted but 4
32 11
imports from
tion of the Haitian import
percent." American dominatrade, which dated back to
intervention, was further strengthened
before the
which, although
by the 1926 tariff reform
basically a revenue
wines and perfumes,
measure, increased duties on
reducing duties
traditionally imported from
on certain products
France, while
States,12 Haitian imports from the imported from the United
75 percent of total imports
United States averaged about
United States amounted during the 1920s, while exports to the
The
to less than 10 percent of total
primary factor in determining the
exports.
export economy and its reliance
weakness of the Haitian
dominance of coffee
on French purchases was the
as the single major
preweather limited coffee
export crop. When bad
deteriorated, such
production or when the international
as it did during World War
market
Brazilian coffee valorization
I and again when
was ruined.
collapsed in 1929, the Haitian
Occupation officials attempted to
economy
by encouraging diversification of
correct this weakness
nique, headed by American
agriculture. The Service Techman, who had recently returned agricultural expert Dr. George F. Freemented with pineapples,
from a job in Indochina, experiucts. Freeman even tried bananas, cotton, and various other
in
to interest the United States
prodselecting Haiti as a site for
government
own sphere of influence." 14 These developing "a rubber supply in its
because most diversification
efforts were largely unsuccessful
tractive to bring in American opportunities were not sufficiently atunsophisticated in agricultural capital, and Haitians were either too
ice Technique, moreover,
techniques or indifferent. The Servwas poorly managed and
attempting too broad a program for its
overambitious in
prosperous years in the mid-1920s, based capabilities. A series of
on good coffee crops and
in
to interest the United States
prodselecting Haiti as a site for
government
own sphere of influence." 14 These developing "a rubber supply in its
because most diversification
efforts were largely unsuccessful
tractive to bring in American opportunities were not sufficiently atunsophisticated in agricultural capital, and Haitians were either too
ice Technique, moreover,
techniques or indifferent. The Servwas poorly managed and
attempting too broad a program for its
overambitious in
prosperous years in the mid-1920s, based capabilities. A series of
on good coffee crops and --- Page 208 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
decoffee market, were correctly
high prices on the international Cumberland as "fortuitous" and not
scribed by Financial Adviser
improvement; in fact, coffee
indicative of any permanent economic
greater than
during the period 1925-29 were only percent
exports
immediately preceding the intervention."
for the four-year period
coffee remained the basic export crop
By the end of the occupation,
in importance and bananas,
although sisal production was growing
were to become a
originally encouraged by the Service Technique,
of an export
after 1935 subsequent to the granting
major crop
Fruit
monopoly to the Standard
Company."
investment and
In attempting to promote American officials capital realized that agriHaitian economic progress American
advancement.
culture would have to be the basis of any significant
and effiPlans to introduce American capital, modern technology, the establishment
of production all presupposed
cient organization
which were common features of foreign
of large-scale plantations, other countries in the Caribbean region.
investment enterprises in
small farmFinancial Adviser Millspaugh noted that "Individualistic
the use of capital, of irrigation, of skilled management, advoing precludes
and High Commissioner Russell
and of efficient marketing,"
whereby each peasant owned
cated abolishing the Haitian system favor of
large plantaand farmed his little plot of land in
establishing involved the untions controlled by foreigners." This, however, freeholders would be repleasant likelihood that Haitian peasant observed that "The conduced to peonage. An American journalist American plantations elsewhere
dition of the native workers on big
better
Latin America has not impressed me as appreciably 19
in
peasants of Haiti." American
than that of the small landholding expressed concern about the
officials, including President Coolidge,
indeed, the
possibility of unfair exploitation of Haitian peasants; maintained wage
few American plantations actually in operation and the largest
the
low rate of 20 cents per day
levels at
abysmally itself of all responsibility for its workers by
firm, HASCO, absolved
bosses. 20
subhiring through native gang forecasts and misgivings about
Despite the dismal agricultural
continually looked
undesirable effects of plantations, the Occupation for promoting ecoagriculture as the primary means
to plantation
American capital investment and did
nomic development and luring
ed, the
possibility of unfair exploitation of Haitian peasants; maintained wage
few American plantations actually in operation and the largest
the
low rate of 20 cents per day
levels at
abysmally itself of all responsibility for its workers by
firm, HASCO, absolved
bosses. 20
subhiring through native gang forecasts and misgivings about
Despite the dismal agricultural
continually looked
undesirable effects of plantations, the Occupation for promoting ecoagriculture as the primary means
to plantation
American capital investment and did
nomic development and luring --- Page 209 ---
UPLIFT-SUCCESS AND FAILURE
investments.
all it could to remove barriers to large-scale the agricultural Haitian courts, some
One barrier to the latifundia solution was
virtue of
remained free from control by the Occupation by
of which
been a constant source of grief to Amerijudicial tenure. These had
officer remarked in 1927 that
can businessmen. A State Department because foreigners and local
and almost solely
it was "primarily
deal in Haitian courts that
business interests cannot secure a square
The Occupation
capital has been slow in going to Haiti."a
foreign
abolishing life tenure for judges through
eliminated this problem by
which allowed the client-govthe 1928 constitutional amendment
ernment to revamp the courts.
to plantation
A related and much more substantial impediment of land into minuscule
development was the long-standing division
experienced
freeholders. American companies
plots held by peasant
plots of land and in gaining clear
great difficulty in buying up large solve this
by court reform
titles. The United States tried to
problem which would have
and by instituting a massive cadastral survey had legal docupermitted land consolidation since few dated peasants back to the division
ments to prove their ownership, which in the early nineteenth cenof former French colonial plantations of a large part of the country
tury." Marines took aerial photographs
cadastral
in 1925 and 1926 in preparation for the contemplated when the building in
survey, but all negatives were destroyed down at night in an unexplained
which they were stored burned
involved fantastically complifire. The survey, which would have
absence of legal
given the almost complete
cated legal proceedings land, was still in the planning stages at
titles even for government
The reluctance of American officials
the time of the 1929 uprisings."
the refusal of
exploitation of peasants, as indicated by
to permit
to sell their lands to American comtreaty officials to force peasants
the occupation prepanies, and fear of arousing the masses against redistribution problem."
vented any summary solution of the land cautioned against pushing
In early 1929 a State Department officer alienating "the mass of
the cadastral survey too hard and thereby had "been hitherto either
the Haitian people" who presumably in Haiti."2 25 Plantation developfriendly or indifferent to our policies limited by natural factors. Fiment was, in any case, inherently remarked that "Those who are fearful
nancial Adviser Millspaugh
to permit
to sell their lands to American comtreaty officials to force peasants
the occupation prepanies, and fear of arousing the masses against redistribution problem."
vented any summary solution of the land cautioned against pushing
In early 1929 a State Department officer alienating "the mass of
the cadastral survey too hard and thereby had "been hitherto either
the Haitian people" who presumably in Haiti."2 25 Plantation developfriendly or indifferent to our policies limited by natural factors. Fiment was, in any case, inherently remarked that "Those who are fearful
nancial Adviser Millspaugh --- Page 210 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
take assurance from the fact that topographically
of the future may
conditions set rather definite limits to
and economically Haitian
development: 9> 26
plantation
of deficient resources, contradictory
With all the other problems
and conflicts of
financial priorities, fragmentary land distribution,
remained
to economic uplift programs
interest, a major impediment itself. While the elite was ideologically hostile
the Haitian peasantry
the
lived in an aland efficiency,
peasants
to American pragmatism which they had had few points of contogether different world in
case Haitian laborers
tact with modern American technology. In one
to
of American wheelbarrows were reported
unloading a shipment balanced on the tops of their heads." Prevailhave carried them off
of cultivation by hoe and
ing agricultural techniques consisted American field ethnologist
machete rather than by plow. In 1952 an
had failed to successreported that, while technical aid programs in several areas had on
fully introduce the plow, Haitian farmers
in the late 1920s
adopted plows left behind
their own eventually
During the occupation Ameriby defunct American companies."
how to adapt their uplift
cans did not appreciate or understand Financial Adviser Cumberprograms to peasant cultural traditions.
the peasants imland expressed dismay and frustration on finding incentives:
pervious to what seemed to him compelling profit
failed to stimulate the peasants of Haiti to inattractive prices have
Evidence is plentiful that the
crease their production of coffee. .
nature provides when the
Haitian peasants merely pick such coffee as are above average. In the
price is low and do the same thing when such prices minimum cultivation of cofformer case there is no abandonment of and in the latter case there is little
fee as has traditionally been in vogue, of coffee already in production."
impetus to improve the yield or quality
field research among the peasantry disclosed strong
In later years
reasonable bases for reservations about
profit motives and quite
never effectively grappled with
modern technology. The Occupation stimulate
interest or
the problem of how to draw upon or
peasant
cooperation.
through the Service Technique, a systematic
Americans did make,
techniques. This was extraoreffort to introduce modern agricultural
between peasant
dinarily difficult because of the tremendous gap
abandonment of and in the latter case there is little
fee as has traditionally been in vogue, of coffee already in production."
impetus to improve the yield or quality
field research among the peasantry disclosed strong
In later years
reasonable bases for reservations about
profit motives and quite
never effectively grappled with
modern technology. The Occupation stimulate
interest or
the problem of how to draw upon or
peasant
cooperation.
through the Service Technique, a systematic
Americans did make,
techniques. This was extraoreffort to introduce modern agricultural
between peasant
dinarily difficult because of the tremendous gap --- Page 211 ---
UPLIFT-SUCCESS AND FAILURE
technology and American technology.
skeptical about new machines and methods Peasants were basically
civilization in general. The
and about foreign white
French colonists and the
experiences of their ancestors with
of 1918-19 did not
more recent American forced-labor corvée
methods and
encourage confidence in the white
motives. Americans, for their
foreigners'
for peasant technology and failed
part, had little respect
existing local skills and traditions. to adapt modern innovations to
the Americans dearly in their
Ironically, this weakness cost
In 1929 Dr.
own private agricultural
Freeman, the chief American
enterprises.
ported to the State Department that
agricultural expert, reventures had failed because
many American agricultural
the techniques
promoters had been unwilling to
employed by local people who
study
tions of practical experience,
had, through generaParaphrasing Freeman's oral developed locally viable methods,
recorded one aspect of the 1929 remarks, a State Department officer
tives were raising cotton
postmortem: e . today the nawhich were scientifically more successfully than the plantations
was too consistently
cultivated, as when land around the trees
cotton trees
had plowed and kept clean from weeds, etc. the
[sic]
a tendency to
etc., but gave very meager results in develop bolls." 30 large branches, leaves,
Here, as in other instances, Americans
their own sense of racial and cultural
were partly defeated by
own superiority in contrast to
superiority. Confident of their
Americans were frequently obtuse "ignorant" and "uncivilized" blacks,
In pointing to this failure
in adapting to local conditions.
appreciate
on the part of American promoters to
of his
peasant ways, Freeman touched
a
own Service Technique, which
upon basic weakness
variety of sophisticated techniques,
experimented with a wide
were of little
equipment, and new
that
practical use to the peasants. As
crops
some American observers, elaborate and
was recognized by
perimentation stations that
expensive agricultural exwere of doubtful value when emphasized the most modern
devices that
the peasants needed cheap, technology
they could work themselves." 81
primitive
emphasis on modern plantation
Here, again, the
irrelevant since capital investment agriculture proved to be largely
skepticism and indifference
did not materialize. Peasant
to
vindicated when the 1929 American-style progress was in part
depression, a function of modern eco-
that
practical use to the peasants. As
crops
some American observers, elaborate and
was recognized by
perimentation stations that
expensive agricultural exwere of doubtful value when emphasized the most modern
devices that
the peasants needed cheap, technology
they could work themselves." 81
primitive
emphasis on modern plantation
Here, again, the
irrelevant since capital investment agriculture proved to be largely
skepticism and indifference
did not materialize. Peasant
to
vindicated when the 1929 American-style progress was in part
depression, a function of modern eco- --- Page 212 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
effectively ended all hopes for economic developnomic interactions,
coffee market, forcing the
ment in Haiti by ruining the international and revert to subsistence
peasants to dispense with cash crops
farming.
also conducted a program of vocational
The Service Technique
trained manpower necessary for
education designed to provide
This was the major conagricultural and industrial development. to Haitian education during
tribution made by the United States
as a facet of the ecothe occupation and was conceived primarily
to increase
program rather than as an attempt
nomic development
education.
literacy or promote general of the few areas of government reGeneral education was one The 1930 Forbes Commission responsibility left to the Haitians.
the treaty of 1915 the assistported to President Hoover: "Under
for in the matter of
ance of the United States was not provided and indirectly that the
education, and it has been only recently this field." 82
Occupation has interested itself in
American
to further education prior to the 1922
The Occupation did nothing
total
for educaand by the late 1920s,
expenditures
reorganization,
10 percent of the Haitian budget compared
tion amounted to only
15 percent of
in Puerto Rico." By 1930 approximately
to percent
enrolled in some kind of school, while apHaitian children were
remained illiterate, the
proximately 95 percent of the population On several occasions
as before the intervention."
same percentage
expressed concern about insuffiFinancial Adviser Cumberland but the American budgetary priorities
ciency of funds for education
precluded larger expenditures."
education program of
the technical
The Occupation promoted Technique at the expense of tradiService
the American-controlled education. The Haitian-controlled Departtional Haitian classical
which directed general education along
ment of Public Instruction, lines, had ten times as many students
traditional French classical
of the money allocated to the
but received less than 40 percent
education." 86 In 1930 the
Service Technique for manual/technical public schools was 70
student-teacher ratio in Haitian-controlled
from $4 to $6 per
to 1 and rural schoolteachers were usually paid
financed
The Service Technique, in contrast, was adequately
month.
salaries for beginning Haitian instrucfor the scope of its activities;
ian-controlled Departtional Haitian classical
which directed general education along
ment of Public Instruction, lines, had ten times as many students
traditional French classical
of the money allocated to the
but received less than 40 percent
education." 86 In 1930 the
Service Technique for manual/technical public schools was 70
student-teacher ratio in Haitian-controlled
from $4 to $6 per
to 1 and rural schoolteachers were usually paid
financed
The Service Technique, in contrast, was adequately
month.
salaries for beginning Haitian instrucfor the scope of its activities; --- Page 213 ---
UPLIFT-SUCCESS AND FAILURE
tors started at $30
education
per month," American emphasis on
was the embodiment of American
vocational
elitism and efficiency, while
concepts of technical
classical education reflected corresponding disparagement of Haitian
refnement of the Haitian elite. American aversion to the idealism and
also exactly paralleled the
The technical-vocational orientation
as opposed to general education Tuskegee Institute model for vocational
High Commissioner
for blacks in the United States.
Haitian education the Russell observed that as a result of classical
rather than
"young men of Haiti have been
toward, productive industry" and
guided from,
led to training for careers in the
that classical studies
needed was agriculturists and skilled professions, when what Haiti really
American view, Haiti already had workers,"8 According to the
lawyers, and civil servants, who, in an overabundance of doctors,
tionary class, while the country
any case, constituted a revoluto increase production and
desperately needed skilled workers
The Haitian
national wealth. 39
elite, which traditionally prided
refinement and sophistication in French
itself on educational
American vocational education
belles lettres, abhorred
tions of racial inferiority
and, moreover, resented the implicafor blacks in the Southern associated with manual training programs
ton's Tuskegee
United States under Booker T.
Institute system. 40 His
Washingfor success at menial trades and
exhortation to blacks to strive
with the premises of the
forgo intellectual pursuits fitted in
Tuskegee faculty predominated Occupation's educational policies, and
sions which the State
on the several American commisHaiti.
Department sent to investigate education in
Dr. Freeman reported that Haitian
training too; they claimed that they peasants resisted vocational
culture, and those
already knew all about agritheir children wanted peasants who were interested in education for
go into the
and them to learn to read and write SO
city
get jobs. 41 Since the
they could
its technical education
Service Technique began
of training Haitian
program at an advanced level in the
teachers, the illiterate
hope
posed to be the eventual beneficiaries,
peasants, who were suption, and initial drafts of
were excluded from participafrom the educated city elite. agricultural students had to be procured
overcome by offering students Elite hostility to manual work was
sufficient monetary incentives in the
about agritheir children wanted peasants who were interested in education for
go into the
and them to learn to read and write SO
city
get jobs. 41 Since the
they could
its technical education
Service Technique began
of training Haitian
program at an advanced level in the
teachers, the illiterate
hope
posed to be the eventual beneficiaries,
peasants, who were suption, and initial drafts of
were excluded from participafrom the educated city elite. agricultural students had to be procured
overcome by offering students Elite hostility to manual work was
sufficient monetary incentives in the --- Page 214 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
The director of the American School in Portform of scholarships.
students were "virtually hired to go
au-Prince remarked that elite
six times the wages earned by
by means of scholarships, at five or
for example, the salary
the fathers of many of them and equal to,
in the hospitals." ?2 42
paid to surgeons
vocational schools were instructed in
Elite students attending
and
and
of technical subjects, such as chemistry
agronomy,
a variety
manual farm labor and shopwork. Dr.
were required to perform
of elite
to manual labor, exFreeman, who was well aware
hostility and partake in the
horted students to repudiate their prejudices
glory of manual labor:
in the Service Technique for a man who
We therefor, have no place with his hands. The strong, steady, and
is afraid or ashamed to work
of all industry. . Give
skilled hand is the first and primary requisite who are not ashamed of honest
who know labor. Give us men
us men
and studied your natI first travelled over your country
toil . . . when
rich in fertility, capable of loading thouural resources, I found valleys,
cotton, bananas, pineapples, and
sands of steamers with cargoes of sugar, there sprung to my thought that
other fruits. . . . How appropriately "The harvest is ripe but the reapers are
expression of our Holy Master
few." 48
for
clean stables, learn carpentry in
Students were to care
cows,
off into the interior as teachService Technique shops, and then go the 1929 student strikes, after
ers in rural farm schools. On the eve of
had developed a netfive years of operation, the Service Technique and 8,848 students; but student
work of 68 schools with 256 teachers and the project was vociferhostility had still not been overcome,
both Haitian and Ameriously denounced by almost all observers,
can."
agency for agriOriginally conceived as a broad, comprehensive Technique had engaged
cultural and industrial uplift, the Service
as the ambitious
of
experiments as well
in all manner agricultural The Occupation had provided it with
vocational education program.
support; but Freeman, who was
ample funds and complete political concentrate his activities on feasifailed to
a poor administrator."
ended in failure. In 1931 a State
ble projects, and most ventures conversation in which Roger L. FarnDepartment officer recorded a
ility had still not been overcome,
both Haitian and Ameriously denounced by almost all observers,
can."
agency for agriOriginally conceived as a broad, comprehensive Technique had engaged
cultural and industrial uplift, the Service
as the ambitious
of
experiments as well
in all manner agricultural The Occupation had provided it with
vocational education program.
support; but Freeman, who was
ample funds and complete political concentrate his activities on feasifailed to
a poor administrator."
ended in failure. In 1931 a State
ble projects, and most ventures conversation in which Roger L. FarnDepartment officer recorded a --- Page 215 ---
UPLIFT-SUCCESS AND FAILURE
the Service Technique as having been "so woefully
ham criticized
conceived and executed, and with
mismanaged, SO extravagantly that anything associated with it
such negligible practical results
exception. > 46 An American
was detested by the Haitians without returned from Haiti stopped
treaty administrator who had recently according to W. R. Scott
off at the State Department in 1929 and, "dwelt at some length and
of the Division of Latin American Affairs,
which he described
with some bitterness" on the Service Technique, its activities over
much with meager results, spread
as having spent
items, and otherwise discredited itself;
a wide range of unimportant
and stated that Amerihe characterized Dr. Freeman as incompetent
both Haitians and
experts were considered a joke by
can agricultural
the
were that American
Americans. 47 Other criticisms of
program lecture through student
instructors did not know French and had to
in relation to
and that these teachers were overpaid
interpreters,
their value to Haiti."
like most of the uplift programs,
American educational efforts,
in policy objectives and by
were hampered by basic contradictions
of the United States atracial and cultural difficulties. The perplexity
Hoover's disillustrated when President
titude was dramatically
Haitian education, headed by
tinguished commission to investigate Institute, could not obtain
President Robert R. Moton of Tuskegee the educators on the compassage to Haiti on Navy ships because served as an ironic capstone to
mission were black. This incident
of Tuskegee-type vocathe Occupation's systematic sponsorship Haitian critics, was rooted in
tional education, which, according to commercial transportation
racial discrimination. In arranging for
been promised
for the Moton Commission, which had originally G. Munro of the Division
passage on a United States warship, Dana
and comAmerican Affairs referred to "the embarrassment
of Latin
would ensue if we asked the Navy to provide acplications which
in Haiti for
commodations" 33 49 When the commission was stranded
the navy evasively offered a minelack of return transportation,
inadequate for
with two berths that was obviously
sweeping tug
that "I feel that the people
the ten-man party. Moton complained of the United States will reof Haiti as well as the colored people
returned
>50 The commission eventually
gard this as a humiliation."
on a commercial ship.
and comAmerican Affairs referred to "the embarrassment
of Latin
would ensue if we asked the Navy to provide acplications which
in Haiti for
commodations" 33 49 When the commission was stranded
the navy evasively offered a minelack of return transportation,
inadequate for
with two berths that was obviously
sweeping tug
that "I feel that the people
the ten-man party. Moton complained of the United States will reof Haiti as well as the colored people
returned
>50 The commission eventually
gard this as a humiliation."
on a commercial ship. --- Page 216 ---
1915-1934
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI,
UNITED
which played a major role in
The moribund Service Technique, to the 1929 strikes and riots,
hostilities that led directly
and frustration. As an
generating to be a center of antagonism a modern technical basis,
continued
Haitian society on
In terms of the
for reorienting
agency
proved to be a major disappointment. technocratic efficiency,
it certainly
of uplifting Haiti through
were much
American purpose
of the Occupation
Material
the material accomplishments the efforts at human persuasion.
case,
than
success in any
more impressive ultimate criterion for American
to
progress was the
found it much easier and more administrative comfortable hierand the Occupation projects and rationalize of human interbuild new construction with people in subtle areas
public
archies than to cope
including roads, and
list of
The
physical sccomplichments.
agencies
action.
efficient government limitations.
works, health improvements, despite persistent budgetary disinteformidable
by rapid
such, was quite
year followed
of
which was a watershed the Eighth Annual Report
In 1929,
programs,
substantial accomgration of the Occupation's Commissioner" 61 listed these
the American High
except for the
plishments:
of order for fourteen years, the establish-
(1) The maintenance and the 1929 riots, through was a soundly
pre-1920 caco uprisings force. The Garde d'Haiti
ment of an efficient police devoid of graft, which had commissioner, characterized
administered organization According to the high of the handithe pre-1915 Haitian army.
in the face 99
had been "accomplished the
. . .
this achievement
and tradition of
people bonded indebtedcaps of the mentality Anances had been systematized.
stabilized
(2) Haitian
had been permanently
reduced, and the currency
ness
of five gourdes to the dollar.
Works Departat the rate
had created a strong Public efficient personnel.
(8) The Occupation
procedures and
ment with proper accounting definite public works organization,
there had been no
port facilities,
Prior to 1915
cities and towns, poor
had
roads connecting
The telephone system
no passable rudimentary telegraph service. miles of roads e utilizable
and only
built 1,000
failed in 1911. The Occupation
was turned over to the unpaved. Haitians,
when the Public Works Department fve miles were, however,
* By 1931,
had been completed. All but
of Haiti, Publio Works
1,075 miles of deteriorated roads
quickly in later years. Republic trans.), pp. 57, 62.
These roads Annual Report, 1930-1931 (English
Administration,
had
roads connecting
The telephone system
no passable rudimentary telegraph service. miles of roads e utilizable
and only
built 1,000
failed in 1911. The Occupation
was turned over to the unpaved. Haitians,
when the Public Works Department fve miles were, however,
* By 1931,
had been completed. All but
of Haiti, Publio Works
1,075 miles of deteriorated roads
quickly in later years. Republic trans.), pp. 57, 62.
These roads Annual Report, 1930-1931 (English
Administration, --- Page 217 ---
UPLIFT-SUCCESS AND FAILURE
by motor vehicles and 210 bridges
1929 there were nearly 3,000
totaling 5,870 feet in length. In
had installed a modern
automobiles in Haiti. The Occupation
distance
telephone system with 1,250 miles of
service, a telegraph system, and a
longwere judged significant aids to
radio station. All these
Works Department had
commerce, In addition, the Public
ings, squares, and
improved and beautified many public buildd'Haiti
parks, built new schools, hospitals, and
buildings, and constructed twelve of
Garde
houses plus nine wharfs.
Haiti's sixteen lightsince French colonial
Irrigation, which had been nonexistent
times, was revived
over 100 miles of functioning ditches.
with the development of
were overhauled. While
Municipal water systems also
ments in the field of emphasizing the considerable accomplishthat "The work has been public works, the High Commissioner added
revenues. An
retarded due to the insufficiency of
enormous task still faces the
99 these
(4) The Public Health Service set
department .
fully equipped
up and operated eleven modhospitals, a medical and
sma rural plus traveling clinics.
hospital training school,
in the reduction of
Important advances had been made
ticing in Haiti, 42 diseases, such as malaria. Of 159 physicians pracService. In 1929 the percent were employed by the Public Health
Under the
Service administered 1,341,000
auspices of the Occupation,
treatments.
tions contributed
private American organizathe Rockefeller significantly to this humanitarian effort. In 1929
Foundation and the American Red
$52,000 to augment the $916,000
Cross contributed
ment revenues. Nevertheless,
provided out of Haitian governbudgetary limitations. The here again there were difficulties with
Health work had been "limited high commissioner observed that Public
funds."
and handicapped" by "insufficient
(5) The Service Technique had, in addition to
maintained five experiment
operating schools,
35 agents, and
stations, an agricultural extension with
healed 315,267 veterinary clinics which, in the past five
animals. The Service
years, had
soil surveys of
Technique had also
States
107,000 acres and sent 10
completed
for university study.
students to the United
These material
tistical reports and achievements, which looked SO attractive in stathe
on progress charts, created the
Occupation was doing well, while the failures impression that
in many areas of
5) The Service Technique had, in addition to
maintained five experiment
operating schools,
35 agents, and
stations, an agricultural extension with
healed 315,267 veterinary clinics which, in the past five
animals. The Service
years, had
soil surveys of
Technique had also
States
107,000 acres and sent 10
completed
for university study.
students to the United
These material
tistical reports and achievements, which looked SO attractive in stathe
on progress charts, created the
Occupation was doing well, while the failures impression that
in many areas of --- Page 218 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
political and cultural interaction were largely unnoticed in Washington and by the Occupation Command in Port-au-Prince. The substantial and ongoing progress in material construction and rationalization of government agencies, along with the aforementioned
economic and educational programs, were rudely disrupted by the
1929 strikes and riots. --- Page 219 ---
Strikes and Riots
High Commissioner
In the years following the 1922 reorganization,
Borno, exRussell, assisted by the collaboration of client-President and impleauthoritarian control over the occupation
ercised rigid
with little regard for opmented the various American programs dissident American subordinates.
position from Haitians or from
indicated continued progRussell's reports to the State Department
development of the
public works projects,
ress in debt retirement,
of the Gendarmerie. Russell and
Service Technique, and training attributed the continuing hostility
other leading American officials
been cut off from the
of the Haitian elite to resentment at having
patriotic motives.
spoils of public office rather than to any compelling
withdrawal
for American
While ostensibly making preparations
departments
the
of the treaty in 1936, most Occupation
at expiration
of responsibility and no effort
did not promote Haitians to positions base of the client-government.
was made to broaden the political later stated that he had tried
Financial Adviser W. W. Cumberland
waste of time because
work with Haitians but that this was a
to
"in my four years experience in
Haitians had nothing to contribute:
constructive
Minister of Finance made one single
Haiti not a single
commercial or financial subject." 29
suggestion on any economic,
the most of President Borno's
The Occupation, while making
concurrently sought
wholehearted cooperation and submissiveness,
possessed a dethe illusion that the client-government
to promote
The most notable assertion of clientgree of independent authority.
tried
Financial Adviser W. W. Cumberland
waste of time because
work with Haitians but that this was a
to
"in my four years experience in
Haitians had nothing to contribute:
constructive
Minister of Finance made one single
Haiti not a single
commercial or financial subject." 29
suggestion on any economic,
the most of President Borno's
The Occupation, while making
concurrently sought
wholehearted cooperation and submissiveness,
possessed a dethe illusion that the client-government
to promote
The most notable assertion of clientgree of independent authority. --- Page 220 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
government independence involved a widely
cident during which Borno dramatically
publicized 1927 inUnited States Senator William
barred a visit to Haiti by
ponent of the occupation.
H. King of Utah, a long-time opinsisted that they had
Both Russell and the State Department
that they were
urged Borno not to exclude Senator King but
the Haitian and powerless to interfere, and the incident
in
American press as a bold assertion of appeared
ereignty. Years later Financial Adviser
Haitian SOVhe had initiated the whole affair
Cumberland disclosed that
to Borno as a ploy to
by suggesting the King exclusion
from being
prove Haitian independence. Borno was far
dependent independent of American control, and was
upon American protection for his
completely
continuance in office. In a popular joke
personal safety and
Americans in Port-au-Prince Borno
among both Haitians and
tlemen, if you move the marine was rumored to have said, "Genout to the aviation field, I
barracks from the rear of my
move the
palace
marine barracks, named Caserne
palace along with you,"s The
president, were located on the Dartiguenave after the first clientdent's palace.
grounds directly back of the PresiAlthough the years following the installation of
commissioner were peaceful and orderly, this
Russell as high
marked increase in American
did not indicate any
effect, mainly as a reminder of popularity. Martial law remained in
day-to-day governing instrument. American authority rather than as a
provost courts for
The use of American
trying Haitian civilians
military
911 cases in 1920 to no cases at all from declined from a high of
tions against the
and
1926 to 1929. Manifestato
occupation
the
journalistic attacks in the
client-government were limited
were frequently jailed without opposition press, for which editors
trial, and to
strations, as when Borno was publicly booed infrequent public demonvisit to the United
on his
States in 1926. - Except for
departure for a
garrison in the background and
keeping the marine
clashes with Haitians, the
instructing marines to avoid overt
lar. Deference to
Occupation did little to make itself popucommunal elections, popular which opinion was minimal, During the 1926
did request that American were subsequently rescinded, Borno
practice be temporarily pulled warships back using Gonaïves Bay for target
0 Borno's arrival in New York
because their presence tended
also was marred by a hostile demonstration.
on his
States in 1926. - Except for
departure for a
garrison in the background and
keeping the marine
clashes with Haitians, the
instructing marines to avoid overt
lar. Deference to
Occupation did little to make itself popucommunal elections, popular which opinion was minimal, During the 1926
did request that American were subsequently rescinded, Borno
practice be temporarily pulled warships back using Gonaïves Bay for target
0 Borno's arrival in New York
because their presence tended
also was marred by a hostile demonstration. --- Page 221 ---
STRIKES AND RIOTS
to hurt the client-governments
were taken to win
chances, but few
popular support. 7 The
positive measures
Charles Lindbergh to
goodwill visit of Colonel
ture of
Port-au-Prince in 1928, a rare
friendship and respect, was partly
American gesing of the elite Cercle Bellevue Club for counteracted by the closoccupation a week before.
political opposition to the
Instead of seeking to win popular
and
in the occupation by making
support
widen participation
rigidly authoritarian and exclusive concessions, Russell maintained the
even with respect to divergent
character of his administration,
officials, Financial Adviser Arthur viewpoints C.
among American treaty
for having disagreed with Russell's Millspaugh, who was dismissed
missioner's relationship with him policies, wrote: "The High Comto exclude practically all other
[Borno] has been SO intimate as
and Haitians.
salutary contacts between Americans
Moreover, the Occupation has
manner as to set itself apart, not only from the functioned in such a
the body of the government. '2 8
people but also from
Millspaugh's successor, Sidney de la Rue, found
among Occupation officials and their wives in the wake bitter animosity
paugh-Russell feud and noted that "all the
of the Millsthe fight including all the soreheads
people who had been in
are still here.".
who hate the General [Russell]),
The unwillingness of the
creased Haitian
Occupation to take steps leading to inment
participation in politics and
was most clearly demonstrated
eventual self-governsion of democratic
by Russell's continued
institutions and his
suppresas client-president despite the
determination to retain Borno
Department. The department, which growing apprehension of the State
the popularly elected legislature,
hoped eventually to reconvene
persisted in emphasizing
became vaguely uneasy as Russell
sell's steadfast
military force and authoritarian rule. Rusdependence on force rather than
unpleasantly apparent when he requested that persuasion became
barked for Nicaraguan duty in
350 marines em-
"constructive work
early 1927 be returned in time for
the
contemplated for next winter,
modifying of the present constitution
including, perhaps,
needed reforms in the
and drastic, but much
ment officer
judiciary system of Haiti.' 22 10 A State
expressed alarm at this
Departand stressed that the important "unfortunately worded" message
thing was to avoid violence, noting
military force and authoritarian rule. Rusdependence on force rather than
unpleasantly apparent when he requested that persuasion became
barked for Nicaraguan duty in
350 marines em-
"constructive work
early 1927 be returned in time for
the
contemplated for next winter,
modifying of the present constitution
including, perhaps,
needed reforms in the
and drastic, but much
ment officer
judiciary system of Haiti.' 22 10 A State
expressed alarm at this
Departand stressed that the important "unfortunately worded" message
thing was to avoid violence, noting --- Page 222 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF
that
HAITI, 1915-1934
Russell, in a personal
of the violent methods conversation, "seemed totally oblivious"
work"
implicit in his dispatch." The
proposed by Russell for the winter of
"constructive
visions of the Haitian Constitution
1927-28 involved rethe authority of the
that would further strengthen
office.
Occupation and ensure Borno's continuance in
Borno had been reelected to a second
under the provisions of the
four-year term in 1926
1918. The 1918 Constitution American-sponsored Constitution of
"an even-numbered year" to be suspended legislative elections until
and it delegated legislative
designated by the client-president,
functions, which included
president, to a Council of State
election of the
was thus reelected
appointed by the president. Borno
had
by a group of his own political allies whom
personally appointed to the Council of State.
he
tional amendments included
The 1928 constituto six years, which would an extension of the presidential term
against the likelihood that safeguard the
Borno's continuance in office
popular elections in 1930. Other Occupation would be forced to call
of the press and jury trials would provisions be
stipulated that freedom
Borno's Council of State, and that regulated by laws passed by
months from the
"Within a period of twelve
publication of the
tive Power is authorized to
present amendments the Execupresent personnel of the proceed to make all changes in the
further amendment
Courts that he deems necessary."12 A
permitted
proposed by Russell and Borno that
Borno to seek still another term
would have
State Department. 18
was forbidden by the
Russell advocated having Borno's Council of
constitutional amendments, but the State
State adopt the
the amendments be passed
Department insisted that
done in the case of the 1918 by a national plebiscite, as had been
lature, the only body legally Constitution when the Haitian legisstitution, proved hostile to competent to tamper with the Conalso objected to the extension American of
purposes." The department
nated the clause
Borno's term to six years and elimiproviding for his
action was out of the
reelection, but severe restraining
both Borno and
question since this would have compromised
Russell, who had
the department
proceeded on the
that
approved of the
assumption
action of forbidding Borno's
amendments. Even the limited
reelection was described in a Division
, the only body legally Constitution when the Haitian legisstitution, proved hostile to competent to tamper with the Conalso objected to the extension American of
purposes." The department
nated the clause
Borno's term to six years and elimiproviding for his
action was out of the
reelection, but severe restraining
both Borno and
question since this would have compromised
Russell, who had
the department
proceeded on the
that
approved of the
assumption
action of forbidding Borno's
amendments. Even the limited
reelection was described in a Division --- Page 223 ---
STRIKES AND RIOTS
American Affairs memorandum as "extremely unfortunate,
of Latin
Russell must suffer
for the prestige of President Borno or General
Washof the
" 15 Despite misgivings in
by the action
Department: the provision for extension of
ington, the amendments, including
in 1928 and passed by
Borno's term, were submitted to a plebiscite negative." 16 The departa vote of 177,436 affirmative as against 3,799 legislative elections
persisted in favoring early
ment subsequently
from Russell, who continued to oppose
and procured assurances call for elections in 1930 and that he
elections, that Borno would reelection under any circumstances."
would not be a candidate for
had to be made
The State Department felt that some beginnings
for the
in the government in preparation
in popular participation of American troops in 1936 and disapproved
scheduled withdrawal
under
character of the present arrangement
of "the anomalous
the legislature and the latter
which the President appoints
the 1930 elections drew
elects the President, >> but as the time for could not reconcile the
officials found that they
closer department
elections with the imminent certainty
long-range plan for popular
at the polls, and the elecof a disastrous defeat for the Occupation
of the
18 In rationalizing the postponement
tions were postponed. the Division of Latin American Affairs reiterelections the chief of
Haitians were too ignorant to vote,
ated the familiar argument that
for anti-American
that elections would only provide would opportunities be feasible after just a few
propaganda, and that elections
more years of American uplift:
furthermore, whether an election held at present
It is very doubtful,
value in training the Haitian people for
would have any appreciable of voters are still too ignorant and too
self-government. The masses
A continuance for a relatively short
much out of touch with the world.
including the opening
time of the development work now in of progress, the peasants in the new rural
of roads and trails and the education
schools, will work a great change in this respect."
While the United States persisted in rationalizing and "out authoritarian of touch,"
control by claiming that Haitians were "ignorant" remedial or palliative
there was still no inclination to undertake illiteracy and educate voters
measures. Instead of trying to reduce
the Occupation's eduin democratic procedures and responsibilities,
self-government. The masses
A continuance for a relatively short
much out of touch with the world.
including the opening
time of the development work now in of progress, the peasants in the new rural
of roads and trails and the education
schools, will work a great change in this respect."
While the United States persisted in rationalizing and "out authoritarian of touch,"
control by claiming that Haitians were "ignorant" remedial or palliative
there was still no inclination to undertake illiteracy and educate voters
measures. Instead of trying to reduce
the Occupation's eduin democratic procedures and responsibilities, --- Page 224 ---
OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED STATES
train194
focused on manual and technical
remained
insensitive to public
cational program
remained grossly
as with
ing. Likewise, the Occupation to reach the Haitian public,
relations. It had the means effective in rallying popular enthusiasm
which later proved SO
the Americans in Haiti failed
radios
Revolution, but
the
reduring the Algerian
After ffteen years
Occupation sponto use them imaginatively."
there had been no officially
monolith;
or self-demained an authoritarian movement toward democracy
sored or even sanctioned
dramatic retermination.
United States was forced to a
Within six months the
elections in the face of the
versal of its decision to postpone President Borno's October, 1929, factor pro- in
strikes and riots. Indeed, the elections was an important
by
nouncement canceling
justified the cancellation
Borno publicly
fomenting the uprisings.
stating:
blindfolded politicians, conof the opposing parties,
in disguising
In the groups slaves of their passions, have persisted and have created,
demned to remain enterprises of the Government, moved and creduthe most laudable in the midsts of people easily the worst impulsions of
through their plottings state of mind, propitious to
lous, a dangerous
disorder."
of elections was comdissatisfaction over the cancellation would be retained by
Popular
fear that Borno
pounded by the widespread another term as client-president.
its highthe Occupation for
had long been engendered by
anDistrust of the Occupation
problems. General Russell,
handedness in dealing with political from the Haitian elite and American
noyed by continuing opposition the 1920s, often responded the cantanker- State Deantt-imperialists throughout
by
1927 letter to the Nation, suppressed
and temper,"
ously. In a
"too much petulance
as
because it displayed
the Service Technique
partment attacked an article criticizing
reader could hardly
Russell
foolish that an intelligent motive for its pubbeing "so childishly and wonder at the underlying of the article is obfail to be amused charged that "The purpose
s9 21 Dissident
lication," and angrily the United States Government."
in
viously to discredit
which included receivers set up
used its radio network, and public health information.
The Occupation to disseminate agricultural
peasant marketplaces,
to the Nation, suppressed
and temper,"
ously. In a
"too much petulance
as
because it displayed
the Service Technique
partment attacked an article criticizing
reader could hardly
Russell
foolish that an intelligent motive for its pubbeing "so childishly and wonder at the underlying of the article is obfail to be amused charged that "The purpose
s9 21 Dissident
lication," and angrily the United States Government."
in
viously to discredit
which included receivers set up
used its radio network, and public health information.
The Occupation to disseminate agricultural
peasant marketplaces, --- Page 225 ---
STRIKES AND RIOTS
for the opposition press in Haiti were in no way
journalists writing
of the
and were frequently arshielded from the wrath
Occupation President Borno. Since
rested by the Gendarmerie on orders from carried out without
Borno's orders to the Gendarmerie were not
in effect,
of General Russell, these arrests were,
the prior approval
under martial
ordered by Russell. a Despite rigid press censorship
against
about a dozen journals kept up a constant agitation
law,
as seven editors were in jail
the Occupation and sometimes as many
minister to Washington
at the same time. Charles Moravia, a former traveler in 1928 that he
and editor of Le Temps, told an American and had
120 days in
had been jailed four times without trial
made spent into literary
jail in the previous year." 22 Some editors were
their resulting
by frequent jailings and later capitalized on
martyrs
the elections that followed the 1929 uprisings.
popularity during
which raised a feeble dissenting voice
The opposition newspapers,
far more than their
otherwise closed society, were persecuted
in an
even went to the trouble of
importance warranted. The Occupation from the wire services SO that
censoring incoming news reports
would not reach the
foreign news unfavorable to the Occupation Christian Gross reported
opposition press. In 1927 American Chargé
and outgoing telecensorship of both incoming
the Occupation's
in addition to the wire service censorship:
grams
of
to confine agitators of a local press to a semblance disIn an endeavor
have been requested to use their
truth local telegraph companies of an absurd and politically defamatory
cretion about receiving messages
of Department of the Interior
nature and if in doubt to request approval without question all business
before sending, Local companies sending
the truth.2
messages also all news items which approach
tended to be irresponsible in spreadWhile the opposition press considered offensive by the Occupation
ing rumors, most editorials
tending toward veiled sarcasm,
were fairly innocuous, with criticism Declaration of Independence with
such as printing the American
of the
One chief of the Gendarmerie, a marine instructions colonel, wrote from the the commandant President I always
Marine Corps in 1927: "When I get any on such orders before carrying them out."
have to get General Russell's approval A. Lejeune, Mar. 14, 1927; Lejeune MSS, ConJ. S. Turrill, COL, USMC, to John
tainer 4.
most editorials
tending toward veiled sarcasm,
were fairly innocuous, with criticism Declaration of Independence with
such as printing the American
of the
One chief of the Gendarmerie, a marine instructions colonel, wrote from the the commandant President I always
Marine Corps in 1927: "When I get any on such orders before carrying them out."
have to get General Russell's approval A. Lejeune, Mar. 14, 1927; Lejeune MSS, ConJ. S. Turrill, COL, USMC, to John
tainer 4. --- Page 226 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
appropriate passages underlined as a
tion tyranny. Prior to 1920 all criticism protest against alleged Occupabeen strictly forbidden but
of the Occupation had
sorship from within the United later, with denunciations of press ceninclination toward
States and the State Department's
liberalizing the
somewhat eased. 25 In any case, Haitian occupation, editors restrictions were
rested since they pressed the limits of Russell's continued to be arthese happened to be. With the
tolerance, whatever
constituted a minor nuisance exception of the few journalists who
Borno
and whose jailings made Russell
appear despotic in both Haiti and the United
and
Occupation effectively suppressed all dissent.
States, the
nationalist agitators, such as Joseph Jolibois Vociferous Haitian
America denouncing the United
fils, who toured Latin
elect Hoover's 1928
States in the wake of PresidentThe stolid
goodwill trip, had to operate from abroad.
effectively domination of the Occupation, which had for SO
controlled Haiti with SO little overt
long
by explosive political and economic forces resistance, was broken
fall of 1929. Economic distress
which converged in the
increases in government
caused by falling coffee prices and
the
taxes were coupled with discontent
postponement of the 1930 legislative elections and
over
continuance of Borno as
the apparent
the latent hatred of the client-president. These factors exacerbated
condescension and boorish Occupation inspired by American racial
1928, the collapse of the coffee military dictation. A poor coffee crop in
of migrant labor
market in 1929, and the restriction
Occupation's
emigration to Cuba were compounded
the
policy of pressing new tax collections.
by
1929, unbeknown to complacent officials
By the fall of
popular discontent in Haiti needed
and the State Department,
into a major uprising
only a rallying point to develop
against the
was provided by a series of student Occupation. This rallying point
Technique.
strikes against the Service
The student strikes began in late
dents at the Service
October, 1929, when the stuDamien walked out in Technique's a body
central agricultural college at
scholarships for city students and protesting a reduction in incentive
ships for field work, Students in the corresponding increases in scholarfollowed in a sympathy
medical college and law
out the
strike, and the strike
college
nation to both public and
quickly spread throughprivate schools. Idle students
point to develop
against the
was provided by a series of student Occupation. This rallying point
Technique.
strikes against the Service
The student strikes began in late
dents at the Service
October, 1929, when the stuDamien walked out in Technique's a body
central agricultural college at
scholarships for city students and protesting a reduction in incentive
ships for field work, Students in the corresponding increases in scholarfollowed in a sympathy
medical college and law
out the
strike, and the strike
college
nation to both public and
quickly spread throughprivate schools. Idle students --- Page 227 ---
STRIKES AND RIOTS
about in the streets for a period of five weeks while General
milled
to meliorate the situation by conceding
Russell tried unsuccessfully
rates. Student demonstraa substantial raise in student scholarship
the widely despised
tors focused their hostility on Dr. Freeman, his home in Port-auhead of the Service Technique, and stoned
by the Garde,
parade dispersed
Prince as part of an unauthorized rallied around the cry "A bas
while elsewhere striking students and paraded Freeman's effigy
Freeman!" (Down with Freemanl)
and distressed by
in the streets." Freeman himself was surprised 1930 Forbes Commisthe strikes and recalled to President Hoover's disaffection: "There
sion that he had misjudged the extent of student had
trust, in fact, it
in whom I
great
was one young man especially almost cried, he swore he would go
hurt me SO badly at the time I their action and then became a
down and restrain the boys in
leader." 99 27
the opinion that "the
Commissioner Russell later expressed
High
according to Latin and European
striking students were acting students take a prominent part in
tradition which prescribes that
stuaction." 99 He described the strikes as "a petty
radical political
used disgruntled politicians, the
dents' affair" which was being
by
Haitian nationalists
"outs," to undermine the Occupation.? 28 In fact,
of
much exercised over the cancellation
of all ages were already
being foisted upon them for a
elections and the prospect of Borno's
of course, made
third term. Opposition agitators and newspapers,
the most of the situation. 29
strikes, supported by French
By the end of November the student schools, was widening to inCatholic brothers and sisters in Catholic
Borno issued
clude the threat of a general strike. 30 In mid-November
that he would not seek a third term and on December
a declaration
that the State Department publicly confirm
2 Russell requested
unrest, but these
noncandidacy in order to quiet popular
Borno's
8 Russell reported to the State
moves were inadequate. On December businessmen were aligning themDepartment that politicians and
of the Carde was "very quesselves with the strikers, that the loyalty 500 marines would be imtionable," and that an additional force of
mediately required to protect American lives.
began with
morning the expected general uprising
The following
in Port-au-Prince. A large, angry mob
a strike by customs employees
that the State Department publicly confirm
2 Russell requested
unrest, but these
noncandidacy in order to quiet popular
Borno's
8 Russell reported to the State
moves were inadequate. On December businessmen were aligning themDepartment that politicians and
of the Carde was "very quesselves with the strikers, that the loyalty 500 marines would be imtionable," and that an additional force of
mediately required to protect American lives.
began with
morning the expected general uprising
The following
in Port-au-Prince. A large, angry mob
a strike by customs employees --- Page 228 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
customs strike and by the end of the
gathered at the site of the
with excited people
day the streets of Port-au-Prince were crowded been called out to reinforce
who stoned marine patrols which had
noted that the marines
Financial Adviser de la Rue
the Garde.""
had been called out just in time:
stood silently by or had walked around shaking hands
the Garde had
their hats politely to lady agitators, etc. It
with leaders and tipping
to the Americans SO much as they
seemed that they were not disloyal who had no idea of what to do
were just dumb, low-class nigger the boys minute the marines got busy, the
to handle an angry crowd .
Garde stiffened up. . 33
spread quickly throughout the country. In
The general uprising
unable to handle 1,000 demonstrators
Cap Haîtien, the Garde was
and several towns in the Cayes
without the support of marine patrols
around American
thousands of peasants gathering
district reported
A bas Freeman!" 84 On December
outposts shouting "A bas Bornol
to the commandant of
Commander R. M. Cutts reported
more
4, Brigade
that the loyalty of the Garde was "becoming
the Marine Corps
of "re-occupation of outlydoubtful" and envisioned the possibility
supplied with autoimportant towns by Marine forces, heavily
ing
5 85
matic shoulder weapons. Russell reacted to the uprisings by reinvoking
High Commissioner
interdicting the opposition press, which
curfew and martial law, by December 5 to 16, by canceling the
suspended publication from Carde d'Haiti and incorporating it as a
independent status of the
Carde reinof the Marine Brigade, and by dispatching
regiment
Petit Goâve, and Leogane, where their timely
forcements to Jacmel,
86 The Hoover administration,
arrival thwarted attempted uprisings.
policy toward Latin
which was trying to develop a Good Neighbor and ordered Rusall these developments
America, was appalled by
the uprisings. Secresell to exercise utmost restraint in suppressing
4 that the
of State Stimson cabled Russell on December
tary
consider that the situation warranted a declaradepartment did not
necessary for the protection
tion of martial law unless "absolutely
had already reinstituted
of lives, P9 and on December 5, after Russell have faith in the loyalty of the
martial law, Stimson urged him to
the
and to keep cool, adding: "I seriously question
black troops
Good Neighbor and ordered Rusall these developments
America, was appalled by
the uprisings. Secresell to exercise utmost restraint in suppressing
4 that the
of State Stimson cabled Russell on December
tary
consider that the situation warranted a declaradepartment did not
necessary for the protection
tion of martial law unless "absolutely
had already reinstituted
of lives, P9 and on December 5, after Russell have faith in the loyalty of the
martial law, Stimson urged him to
the
and to keep cool, adding: "I seriously question
black troops --- Page 229 ---
STRIKES AND RIOTS
martial
deleted]
yesterday as to
wisdom of the ['your'
proclamation
in an
it seems that the benefit of such a proclamation
law. To me
like Haiti is outweighed by the unfortunate
illiterate population United States, particularly as you state that
effect produced in the
>> 87
martial law was already in force."
and to withStimson advised Russell to rescind the proclamation send out reinforcefrom exposed places rather than
draw Americans
five hundred marines were
ments. As a precautionary measure, Haitian duty, but these men would
embarked at Norfolk for possible
relucin dire emergency, since Stimson was "extremely
be used only
of the Marine Brigade" and felt that
tant to increase the strength
would
rise to sensational
"the sending of additional forces
s 88 give
reports regarding the Haitian situation."
of December 6.
All this was before the disastrous Cayes massacre machetes, and
armed with stones,
Fifteen hundred angry peasants,
marines armed with rifles
clubs, surrounded a detachment of twenty had
out to meet the
automatic
39 The marines
gone
and
weapons."
on the town intent on securing the
peasants, who were advancing
before and on airing various
release of prisoners arrested the day
complaints about
against the Occupation, including
grievances
and other taxes. Marine airplanes had dropped
alcohol, tobacco,
to awe the local population
bombs in Cayes harbor in an attempt
apparently had the
into submissiveness, but this demonstration
A
effect of creating terror and frenetic excitement."
undesired
attempted to persuade the mob
district marine officer unsuccessfully account given by two marine
to retire, but then, according to an
scuffe:
participants, a Haitian leader instigated a
countered with a
The leader made a suspicious move and Gillaspey the stock. The belligblow with the stock of his Browning gun, breaking and biting him. William
tackling Gillaspey around the right leg
erent fell,
first class, bayoneted the man without seriously the
T. Meyers, private,
him to release Gillaspey. The clash with
hurting him, but forcing
natives followed."
announced that the Haitians first threw
The State Department the marines. 42 In any case, the marines
stones and then rushed
and dispersed the mob.
opened fire at point-blank range
press releases indiInitial marine reports and State Department
the stock of his Browning gun, breaking and biting him. William
tackling Gillaspey around the right leg
erent fell,
first class, bayoneted the man without seriously the
T. Meyers, private,
him to release Gillaspey. The clash with
hurting him, but forcing
natives followed."
announced that the Haitians first threw
The State Department the marines. 42 In any case, the marines
stones and then rushed
and dispersed the mob.
opened fire at point-blank range
press releases indiInitial marine reports and State Department --- Page 230 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
cated that 5 Haitians were killed and 20
informed the department that the final wounded, but Russell later
and 23 wounded, and that "It is
hospital list totaled 12 dead
not brought in and other deaths possible that other wounded were
taminated wounds.
occurred in the hills from converification
Reports are current that this is the
cannot be secured." 48 Casualty lists
case, but
Haitian press in January, 1930, totaled 24
published in the
In response to pointed
dead and 51 wounded.
Joseph P. Cotton, who questions from Under Secretary of State
referred to the
"Gring squad," > Russell explained the
marine detachment as a
in charge of the
curious fact that both the officer
detachment and his
in Haiti only two days before the second-in-command had arrived
selected for this duty as they would massacre by saying that they "were
ing no bias or preconceived ideas operate on a military basis, havreported that 600 rounds
of the Haitian situation. > 45 Russell
and
had been fired by
one machine gun, but that most
rifles, automatic rifles,
over the natives' heads and that "Had firing had been deliberately
it is reported that from three
punitive effect been desired,
hundred to four
more, could easily have been killed." 46 A State hundred, perhaps
release indicated that one marine was hurt
Department press
ter with a mob leader. The marines
in hand-to-hand encounof any taint of
were later officially vindicated
awarded the brutality or indiscretion when the Navy
Navy Cross to the Cayes detachment Department
"commendable courage and forbearance." 47
commander for
Military decorations
exactly what the Hoover notwithstanding, the Cayes massacre was
dent Hoover had stated administration in his
wanted most to avoid. PresiDecember 3 that he did not first annual message to Congress on
abroad by marines
want the United States
solution
on foreign soil and that he was
represented
to the Haitian problem. 48 On
anxious to find a
of the masacre, Hoover sent
December 7, after learning
ing a $50,000
a special message to Congress requestHaiti.
appropriation to send a commission of
Meanwhile, he urgently sought to
investigation to
in Haiti by trying to get General Russell prevent further calamity
five hundred marine reinforcements
to make do without the
Prince aboard the U.S.S. Wright.
who were waiting off Port-auber 9: "The President feels that Stimson cabled Russell on Decemtion SO far as public
it would immensely help the situaopinion in this country is concerned if the
the masacre, Hoover sent
December 7, after learning
ing a $50,000
a special message to Congress requestHaiti.
appropriation to send a commission of
Meanwhile, he urgently sought to
investigation to
in Haiti by trying to get General Russell prevent further calamity
five hundred marine reinforcements
to make do without the
Prince aboard the U.S.S. Wright.
who were waiting off Port-auber 9: "The President feels that Stimson cabled Russell on Decemtion SO far as public
it would immensely help the situaopinion in this country is concerned if the --- Page 231 ---
STRIKES AND RIOTS
would not
the
could be diverted. .
This
Marines now on
Wright but would reflect credit on the efficacy
only diminish criticism here taken." 49 In a separate message, Stimof the steps you have already additional troops would "very adversely
son added that landing
America. >> 50
affect our relations with all Latin
Women and chilRussell managed without the reinforcements.
into
American colonies at outlying posts were brought
dren from
and Garde detachments in the interior
Port-au-Prince and marines
stations SO as not to arouse
kept within the bounds of their regular
either returned to
further hostility. Striking government employees 4 walkout or were fired.
work on the day following the December of demonstrators quashed
Reinvigoration of martial law and arrests
December 12
and Cap Haitien. By
the uprisings in Port-au-Prince
the strike at Port-au-Prince
only 33 of 145 Haitians arrested during
reaffirmation that
still in
An official State Department
were
jail."
for reelection helped calm popular
Borno would not be a candidate
at Cap Haîtien credited the
unrest; in fact, the American commander averted bloodshed," and
department's declaration with having
announced intention of sending a special presiPresident Hoover's
the opposition. After order was
dential commission further placated exonerated Russell of previous
restored, the State Department
severe in reacting to the
allegations that he had been unnecessarily American Affairs Munro
Chief of the Division of Latin
uprisings.
became acute in Haiti we were inclined
noted: "When the situation
in declaring martial
to feel that General Russell had been precipitate makes it very clear, in
law. More complete information, this however, action until it was absolutely
opinion, that he did not take
my
outbreak which would have cost many
necessary to prevent an
of State Stimson sent
lives.' >9 53 At the end of December Secretary him for having handled
Russell a congratulatory message praising
the uprisings well."
which tended to disprove the longIn explaining the uprisings,
to the Occupation was confined
standing assertion that opposition
General Russell
to a small number of disgruntled elite politicians, all the trouble. Less than a
argued that a few agitators had caused
that it
earlier Russell had reported to the State Department
year
worthy of note that the ignorant peasant no longer
was "particularly
with distrust, but now rather regards it
looks upon the intervention
9 53 At the end of December Secretary him for having handled
Russell a congratulatory message praising
the uprisings well."
which tended to disprove the longIn explaining the uprisings,
to the Occupation was confined
standing assertion that opposition
General Russell
to a small number of disgruntled elite politicians, all the trouble. Less than a
argued that a few agitators had caused
that it
earlier Russell had reported to the State Department
year
worthy of note that the ignorant peasant no longer
was "particularly
with distrust, but now rather regards it
looks upon the intervention --- Page 232 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
to Russell, were not
as a friend." 55 The 1929 uprisings, according but rather by a few elite
caused by widespread popular discontent
Russell asserted:
who cared nothing for the peasants.
politicians
unsupported, almost unThe students' strike disorders were utterly
inarticuuninteresting to the passive, politically
known and completely in the vicinity of Cayes were agitators able to
late peasants. . Only
mob containing some peasants; and among
play upon the ignorance of a
hatred of the town, and the
the causes of that outbreak were liquor,
expectation of loot,se
in Port-au-Prince and Cap
With respect to the mass uprisings the declaration of martial law
Haitien, Russell noted that, following these two chief cities became calm,
and curfew, "Almost immediately interest in the affair." 57 In subseshowing the lack of real popular allusions to international Red
quent reports Russell made vague massacre on "dishonest, paid
conspiracy and blamed the Cayes
memorial several years
agitators." 92 58 However, writing a personal had been "liberally incited
later, he alleged that the Cayes peasants the extent of unrest was, of
by rum. 97 59 Russell's later minimizing and dire communiqués he had
course, belied by the many urgent
sent to Washington during the uprisings. and the attendant implicaThe placing of all blame on agitators hostile to the Occupation,
tion that most Haitians were not really
information, was in
although unsupported by concrete intelligence that popular eleckeeping with the familiar Russell-Borno argument
and could
not feasible because the masses were ignorant
tions were
the Occupation by unscrupulous
be manipulated into voting against
theory served
selfish
While the "subversive agitator"
and
politicians.
authoritarian rule in the interest
for paternal
as a neat justification
the Occupation of failings otherwise imof the masses and excused
weakness of Russell's assessment of
plicit in the uprisings, the basic demonstrated by the fact that he
Haitian opposition was clearly
when the roof fell in in 1929."
was caught completely by surprise surveillance of virtually all
The marines' elaborate intelligence
advance indication of the
Haitian political activity had provided no
was similar to the slave revolt syndrome
American surprise at the 1929 uprisings yielded superficial acquiescence that
in colonial Saint Domingue, where but proved repression illusory.
was comforting to the masters
failings otherwise imof the masses and excused
weakness of Russell's assessment of
plicit in the uprisings, the basic demonstrated by the fact that he
Haitian opposition was clearly
when the roof fell in in 1929."
was caught completely by surprise surveillance of virtually all
The marines' elaborate intelligence
advance indication of the
Haitian political activity had provided no
was similar to the slave revolt syndrome
American surprise at the 1929 uprisings yielded superficial acquiescence that
in colonial Saint Domingue, where but proved repression illusory.
was comforting to the masters --- Page 233 ---
STRIKES AND RIOTS
included
cumbersome intelligence network
uprisings. The Garde's
from Cabinet offipersonal files on hundreds of individuals,
ongoing
barbers, yet there was no material to substantiate 60
cers to small-town
to overthrow the Occupation."
allusions to any serious conspiracy international Communist conspiracy
The only indications of any
several mass demonstrations
to foil American plans for Haiti were
and New York. The
against the Occupation staged in Washington Communist party memNew York Times reported that five hundred Hall Plaza following a
bers battled New York City police at City issued in the party's
call for demonstrations against the Occupation
however,
the Daily Worker. 01 These demonstrations,
with
newspaper,
the
in Haiti were over, and coincided
took place after uprisings
public attacks on United
widespread American and worldwide
In the United States
States policy following the Cayes massacre.
suddenly
long-dormant opposition to the Occupation
Congress,
to American hypocrisy in championing
revived as critics pointed
down natives and noted that
democracy and freedom while gunning
similar to that of Great
the American position in Haiti was strikingly
of antiIndia and Japan in Korea. 62 As had been typical
Britain in
the occupation, the major concern
imperialist agitation throughout
decline of American political
was not with Haiti but with the alleged
idealism. One congressman stated that
from
are those who practice it
those who finally suffer most
despotism
but I regard our disothers. I sympathize with the Haitian people,
harmful
upon
of self-government by the Haitians as more
regard of the right
than to the Haitians, because we disregard the
to our own institutions
in the Declaration of Independence. When
great principles announced the moral fiber of the people will begin to
we cease to practice justice,
decay."
admitting that he was "not especially interAnother congressman,
chiché
ested in the Haitians," 99 echoed the familiar anti-imperialist at home. >9 64
"An
abroad can not remain a democracy
that
imperialism
the
also reflected political
The congressional debate over occupation with Northern and Southern
divisions within the United States,
with respect to the
congressmen accusing each other of hypocrisy United States and
denial of the ballot to Negroes in the Southern
Haiti, respectively." 65
begin to
we cease to practice justice,
decay."
admitting that he was "not especially interAnother congressman,
chiché
ested in the Haitians," 99 echoed the familiar anti-imperialist at home. >9 64
"An
abroad can not remain a democracy
that
imperialism
the
also reflected political
The congressional debate over occupation with Northern and Southern
divisions within the United States,
with respect to the
congressmen accusing each other of hypocrisy United States and
denial of the ballot to Negroes in the Southern
Haiti, respectively." 65 --- Page 234 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
attention. Prior to the
The 1929 uprisings attracted worldwide from Haiti since telegraph
little had been heard
uprisings very
and the only two news
services were censored by the Occupation,
Press (AP) and the
with reporters in Haiti, the Associated
officers.
agencies
both
by marine corps
United Press (UP), were
represented of the
was also the
at the time
uprisings
The AP representative
marine reporter, who had
commandant of the Garde; and a previous and the UP, was a former pubsimultaneously represented the AP
66 During the
officer for the Marine Corps in Washington.
to
licity and riots both AP and UP sent special correspondents
strikes
American and other foreign newspapers, and
Haiti, as did several
Press reaction in the
press coverage increased correspondingly. hostile to the Occupation, but it
United States was not especially
of the Occupation, such as
was not favorable either; and criticisms were given a great deal
those made by Senators Borah and King,
was decidedly
67 The foreign reaction to the uprisings
of publicity."
remarked while
hostile to the United States. As one congressman the role of praying pirates"
criticizing the United States for playing world and does not blind it. The
in Haiti, "Our smugness irritates the but seldom fools the world." 68
White House often fools the country,
insofar as the occupation
Foreign attitudes toward the occupation,
unfavorable. British
of attention, had always been
was a subject
had created a minor fuss over the 1920
members of Parliament
killings of
report that alluded to indiscriminate
Marine Corps
that the United States was quick to criticize
Haitians, pointing out
little notice to its own ruthless
British activities in Ireland but paid
American scholar Samuel
repression of resistance in Haiti." In 1924
attacked in France,
Guy Inman noted that the occupation was being has the military occupaBritain, and Spain, and that "In no country discussed than in Japan,
tion of Santo Domingo and Haiti been more
Monroe Doctrine of
where the Government has formed now its own
demands on
which it justified its recent Twenty-one
the Orient, by
China, and its imperialism in Korea."" critical of American racism,
The French press was especially of the
71 The 1929
feature
occupation."
which was seen as a dominant
a dramatic increase in
uprisings and the Cayes incident spurred The Paris press followed the
unfavorable foreign newspaper reports.
critical, with some
uprisings closely and was characteristically
"In no country discussed than in Japan,
tion of Santo Domingo and Haiti been more
Monroe Doctrine of
where the Government has formed now its own
demands on
which it justified its recent Twenty-one
the Orient, by
China, and its imperialism in Korea."" critical of American racism,
The French press was especially of the
71 The 1929
feature
occupation."
which was seen as a dominant
a dramatic increase in
uprisings and the Cayes incident spurred The Paris press followed the
unfavorable foreign newspaper reports.
critical, with some
uprisings closely and was characteristically --- Page 235 ---
STRIKES AND RIOTS
The Mancalling for a League of Nations investigation."
British
papers
the following dispatch from a
chester Guardian published after the Cayes massacre:
reporter in Haiti three days
where almost the entire population is in revolt
The situation in Haiti,
as no surprise to those in close
against American control . . comes
Resentment against the
touch with the affairs of the negro republic. and needed only some
American occupation has long been smouldering
minor dispute to cause it to burst into flame."
later referred to the occupation as "America's least
The Guardian
>> 74
successful experiment in imperialism. concerned about the possiThe State Department was especially in Latin-American counble adverse affect of the Haitian uprisings
diplomatic
and issued a circular instructing all Latin-American
tries
local reactions. The resulting reports described
posts to report on
reports, such as in Lima newsfrequent instances of hostile press statements by United States
papers, all of which quoted critical with Latin-American governSenator William Borah, but relations
newspaper La
affected." The Argentine
ments were not directly
the occupation through early
Prensa continued to campaign against managed to keep Haiti out
1930. During the mid-1920s the marines the
was turning
spotlight, but now
occupation
of the international
to United States efforts to develop
into a defnite embarrassment America. The concern about unfavorfriendly relations with Latin
that Hoover and Stimson had
able publicity at home and abroad
expressed during the uprisings was justified.
untenable.
The 1929 strikes and riots made the occupation would have necesAmerican rule and denial of elections
Continued
international embarrasssitated military repression and additional States could not gracefully
because the United
ment. It was largely
had continued to sit on Haiti after
extricate itself that the marines
American hopes for gradual
World War I. With the 1929 uprisings,
were
extrication from the Haitian entanglement
and unobtrusive
the sensational Cayes massacre,
shattered. The uprisings, especially
cared to face. President
as Hoover and Stimson
were as disastrous
commission to Haiti in February,
Hoover, in dispatching a special
which is to be investigated is
1930, stated: "The primary question from Haiti. The second question
when and how we are to withdraw
to sit on Haiti after
extricate itself that the marines
American hopes for gradual
World War I. With the 1929 uprisings,
were
extrication from the Haitian entanglement
and unobtrusive
the sensational Cayes massacre,
shattered. The uprisings, especially
cared to face. President
as Hoover and Stimson
were as disastrous
commission to Haiti in February,
Hoover, in dispatching a special
which is to be investigated is
1930, stated: "The primary question from Haiti. The second question
when and how we are to withdraw --- Page 236 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HATTI, 1915-1934
is what we shall do in the meantime. . . As Ihave stated before,
I have no desire for representation of the American Government
abroad through our military forces. > 76
Subsequent American policy was to avoid further popular demonstrations at all costs and to get out of Haiti as quickly as could be
done in an orderly fashion. --- Page 237 ---
Withdrawal
The 1929 uprisings resulted in the
authoritarian policies and
abandonment of repressive,
of rapid transferal of political complementary uplift programs in favor
United States objective
control back to the Haitians. The
even though this
was to get out of Haiti as quickly as
meant an
possible
forces in popular elections overwhelming and
victory for anti-American
pre-1915 political and social a seemingly inevitable reversion to
progress were forsaken as officials conditions. of All allusions to uplift and
dicted that disaster would follow
the occupation frankly prewithdrawal. The
in the aftermath of American
major barrier to early
not concern over having adequate
American withdrawal was
and uplift programs to
time to transfer treaty services
of satisfying
competent Haitians but rather the
commitments to American
problem
on continued American financial
bondholders, who insisted
Haitianizing the government
control. After a crash program of
for transfer of the Banque departments and laborious negotiations
financial control, the last Nationale and continuation of American
1934, two years in advance marines of the were finally withdrawn in midPrior to the 1929 strikes and 1936 date stipulated in the treaty.
generally satisfied with
riots the State Department had been
missioner Russell.
progress in Haiti as reported
No basic change in Haitian
by High Comtemplated; the occupation was
policy had been conwhich time the
expected to continue until 1936, at
President Hoover government had
would be turned over to the Haitians.'
planned to send a commission of
investigation
financial control, the last Nationale and continuation of American
1934, two years in advance marines of the were finally withdrawn in midPrior to the 1929 strikes and 1936 date stipulated in the treaty.
generally satisfied with
riots the State Department had been
missioner Russell.
progress in Haiti as reported
No basic change in Haitian
by High Comtemplated; the occupation was
policy had been conwhich time the
expected to continue until 1936, at
President Hoover government had
would be turned over to the Haitians.'
planned to send a commission of
investigation --- Page 238 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
to Haiti before the uprisings, but this
by American business firms rather was in response to complaints
pendence. 2 The
than to agitation for Haitian indeactually got around uprisings came as a big surprise, and when
to sending a commission
Hoover
1930, the purpose was to dump the
to Haiti in February,
modate Haitian nationalists in order Russell-Borno regime and accomembarrassment to the United
to avoid further bloodshed and
sisted of Chairman W.
States. The Forbes Commission conPhilippines and leading Cameron Forbes, a former governor of the
P.
expert on American colonial
Fletcher, a former Rough Rider,
matters; Henry
on his 1928 goodwill tour of Latin diplomat, and adviser to Hoover
editor James Kerney of New
America; Democratic newspaper
Catholic; and William
Jersey; Elie Vezina, a
Allen White, liberal
French-speaking
whose presence, according to
Republican journalist
the public that the
White, was calculated to guarantee to
affair." Fletcher,
investigation would not be a
Kerney, and White were
whitewashing
withdrawal of the marines at the earliest
predisposed toward
Forbes, who had been invited
possible moment, while
secretary of state referred to by Stimson to undertake what the
as "a very
job," was by temperament and
disagreeable and thankless
promiser.
training a conciliator and comPopular hostility to the occupation and
ment was still very much in evidence to the Borno client-governreached Haiti in
when the Forbes Commission
his
February, 1930. Rumors
own successor had caused a crowd of that Borno would choose
in Port-au-Prince on the eve of the
several thousand to gather
by marines and the Garde, which commission's arrival, and arrests
hitting people with billies, created also dispersed the crowd by
of arrival 6,000 Haitian
a tense atmosphere. On the day
carrying placards
demonstrators greeted the commission
colleagues reported denouncing the occupation; and Forbes and his
demonstrations
that, although they felt that this
were rigged by the
and other
that public sentiment in Haiti
opposition, it was "fair to assume
than to the government. >2 5 No was more responsive to the opposition
the occupation. Despite initial one ever demonstrated in favor of
mission managed to ingratiate itself Haitian with apprehensiveness, the comthanks to William Allen White's
the Haitian public largely
vened to procure permission for personal charm. Forbes had intera patriotic parade of Haitian women
colleagues reported denouncing the occupation; and Forbes and his
demonstrations
that, although they felt that this
were rigged by the
and other
that public sentiment in Haiti
opposition, it was "fair to assume
than to the government. >2 5 No was more responsive to the opposition
the occupation. Despite initial one ever demonstrated in favor of
mission managed to ingratiate itself Haitian with apprehensiveness, the comthanks to William Allen White's
the Haitian public largely
vened to procure permission for personal charm. Forbes had intera patriotic parade of Haitian women --- Page 239 ---
WITHDRAWAL
which had been forbidden
by the
witnessed the parade, blew a kiss to Occupation, and White, who
which caused the demonstrators
a withered old black woman,
fidence in the commission's
to cheer and helped create consubsequently referred to White good in intentions. The opposition press
name corresponds to and fits the glowing terms: "How well the
character,
heart . . . full of wise counsels and
White of soul and of
in his person.' > 6
generous fervor, gay, lovable
Members of the Forbes Commission made
vate the Haitian elite by
a special effort to cultito elite testimony
mingling socially and by listening mainly
General
during the formal phases of the
Russell, on the other hand, antagonized the investigation.
inviting members of the elite to a social
opposition by
of the commission. Russell went
reception given in honor
commission that he and Mrs. Russell to great lengths to convince the
themselves in being socially
had always personally extended
tions to the mixed
gracious toward the Haitians, but invitareception for the
of embarrassing refusals from
commission resulted in a series
ently being invited to the Russell Haitians, some of whom were appartook the opportunity to
residence for the first time and
of refusal in the local express their hostility by publishing letters
commission
press. The reception was
was impressed by Russell's
integrated, and the
erance, but, as Forbes observed, "The professions of racial toltreatment of the colored
large social question of the
was not approached." people by officers in the Marine brigade
In presenting the Occupation's side of the
Russell called together all the
story to the commission
pressed upon them the
treaty officials and, as he put it, "imnecessity of refuting in
charges set forth by the Opposition,' >> but the every particular, the
publicly compromised when Dr. Freeman of Occupation's case was
insisted on testifying in private
the Service Technique
"looked very much as if he had sessions. Russell remarked that it
Freeman's testimony was not
something to conceal." In fact,
Freeman released the
compromising to the Occupation, and
explaining that "I did commission not know from its pledge of secrecy after
certain questions of a delicate whether or not you might ask me
macy should require to be
nature which the dictates of diplokept confidential .
no such questions
,' >> but the every particular, the
publicly compromised when Dr. Freeman of Occupation's case was
insisted on testifying in private
the Service Technique
"looked very much as if he had sessions. Russell remarked that it
Freeman's testimony was not
something to conceal." In fact,
Freeman released the
compromising to the Occupation, and
explaining that "I did commission not know from its pledge of secrecy after
certain questions of a delicate whether or not you might ask me
macy should require to be
nature which the dictates of diplokept confidential .
no such questions --- Page 240 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
the unfavor-
>9 10 Freeman's candor came too late to counteract
arose,
his initial reticence, and the testimony of
able impression made by
either the commission or
other officials did not particularly impress
received a detailed
the Haitian public. When the commission General Russell, it refused to
defense of the occupation prepared by
disorders in what had
make the document public for fear of creating
delicate situation.
become an extremely
mission of the Forbes Commission
The immediate and pressing
future policies as
was not SO much to investigate and recommend between the Russell-Borno
it was to solve the political impasse the threat of further violence.
regime and the opposition and to avert Memorandum, Steps taken
In a special report entitled "Confidential Forbes noted that "the
acute
situation in Haiti,"
to solve
political
that the Haitians
situation was difficult at best and really required alternative seemed
be permitted to elect their president . . any chance of a president's
to be out of the question, as there was no
in anything but
being elected by the Council of State resulting
revolution." ? 11
Russell described the situation as
In a memorandum to Forbes,
intends to force the issue of
tense and observed that "the opposition of lives, and it is therefore
national elections, even at the sacrifice
to endeavor to effect a compromise."
of utmost importance
Borno and transfer political
The problem was how to remove
the
Borno
to the most moderate faction within
opposition.
power
unfavorable impression on the commission, and Forbes
made a very
to be "living in a world of illusion or
commented that he seemed
which had been endelusion in regard to the depth of the feeling "? 18 William Allen
gendered against him by the Haitian populace.
and most
described Borno as follows: "He is thin, tall, toothy
White
apart from reality. : . He has a
disagreeable, and lives entirely
myself-and Kerney
little sneering laugh . . . I kept pinching not listening to a stage melosaid he did also-to realize that I was
man should be SO
drama. It just did not seem possible than any
patent a stage villain." 14
that the Americans would ultiBorno had apparently expected and was now becoming recalcimately retain him as client-president thrown out of office.
trant at the prospect of being
follows: "He is thin, tall, toothy
White
apart from reality. : . He has a
disagreeable, and lives entirely
myself-and Kerney
little sneering laugh . . . I kept pinching not listening to a stage melosaid he did also-to realize that I was
man should be SO
drama. It just did not seem possible than any
patent a stage villain." 14
that the Americans would ultiBorno had apparently expected and was now becoming recalcimately retain him as client-president thrown out of office.
trant at the prospect of being --- Page 241 ---
WITHDRAWAL
Despite repeated messages from the State
that Borno would not be
Department since 1928
assurances from Russell and permitted a third term and frequent
Borno had begun to
Borno that he would not run again,
mission
hedge in the fall of 1929,15 The Forbes
reaffirmed the department's decision
Comthat "the United States would not
and informed Borno
of a government kept in
longer tolerate the perpetuation
people by means of the power against the desires of the Haitian
ceeded
guns of the Marines.' 2 16 The
to negotiate with the political
commission procontinued to deal with Borno in
opposition while Russell
selecting a temporary neutral
an effort to work out a plan for
several months until
president who would hold office for
factory compromise legislative elections could be held. A satisinvolving the selection of
porary president was worked out with the
Eugene Roy as temof the Garde, Marine Colonel
help of the commandant
thought of by the opposition and Frank E. Evans, who was highly
to Garde intelligence
by Haitians in general.
reports, Borno had earlier
According
Evans was the sole cause of his not
stated privately that
while Russell remained
being selected for a third term,
his office, Borno
loyal." Although it involved
finally agreed to the
surrendering
Russell played a large part in drawing compromise plan, and he and
wrote the State
up the details. Forbes later
Department that the
have accepted the compromise
opposition groups would never
it emanated from "the
plan had they known how much of
Borno." > 18 The Forbes initiative of General Russell and President
would elect Roy, who plan would provided that Borno's Council of State
insisted
then call for the
upon by the opposition. The
legislative elections
would then choose a new president other popularly elected legislature
Borno, however, had not
than Roy.
proceeded to intrigue
yet reconciled himself to defeat, and
against the Forbes
agreement and thereby
plan by going back on his
strations, such as a clash aggravating popular unrest. Popular demonin Jacmel, all featured demands between a hundred youths and the Garde
by the Forbes plan. While the for legislative elections as provided
interior of the country, Borno Forbes Commission was touring the
promise plan by
renounced his agreement to the comhis Council of State sending a telegram to local prefects
that
would elect the new president. Forbes declaring
referred
not
than Roy.
proceeded to intrigue
yet reconciled himself to defeat, and
against the Forbes
agreement and thereby
plan by going back on his
strations, such as a clash aggravating popular unrest. Popular demonin Jacmel, all featured demands between a hundred youths and the Garde
by the Forbes plan. While the for legislative elections as provided
interior of the country, Borno Forbes Commission was touring the
promise plan by
renounced his agreement to the comhis Council of State sending a telegram to local prefects
that
would elect the new president. Forbes declaring
referred --- Page 242 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
of unrest and misunderstanding"
to this telegram as "provocative Borno that the marines would no
and the commission informed
trouble." Borno,
longer protect him if he persisted in fomenting continued to make
desperately to what little power he had,
clinging
that the elections would not be held
public statements implying of State would select someone other
until 1932 and that his Council
various
failed
president, but his
intrigues
than Roy as provisional force the United States to retrench in
to create enough unrest to
rule. The State Dethe old Russell-Borno system of authoritarian would not "afford
warned Borno that the United States
of action
partment
support or protection in a course
him or his adherents any
Russell that the department
contrary to the plan" and informed
to have Eugene Roy
would "take such steps as may prove necessary
therefore,
President e
and is prepared,
installed as temporary
of State which is in violation
to disregard any action of the Council
after
of the plan. 99 20 A little more than a month
of the provisions
Commission the Council of State elected
the departure of the Forbes
and a few weeks later Borno
Roy, according to the compromise plan,
president was inauguwas publicly jeered as the new provisional
where he was prorated. Borno retired to his home in Pétionville,
afterward
small detachment of the Garde, and shortly
tected by a
vacation in Europe.
left the country for an extended
the achievements and failThe Forbes Commission, in assessing
racism, the advance
ures of the Occupation, criticized American could have been used for
payment of the debt when excess revenues
the failure to
the dismal performance in education,
development,
and the Garde as rapidly
train Haitians to take over the government of independent selfhave been done, and the attitude
as might
officials of the Occupation. In its final report to
sufficiency taken by
noted:
President Hoover, the commission
and attitude of the treaty officials gave our commission the
The acts
had been based upon the assumption that the Occuimpression that they
In other words, their plans and
pation would continue indefinitely. account that their work would be
projects did not seem to take into
to find that
completed by 1936, and the commission was disappointed training of Haitians
the preparation for the political and administrative
of government had been inadequate.s
in the responsibilities
attitude
as might
officials of the Occupation. In its final report to
sufficiency taken by
noted:
President Hoover, the commission
and attitude of the treaty officials gave our commission the
The acts
had been based upon the assumption that the Occuimpression that they
In other words, their plans and
pation would continue indefinitely. account that their work would be
projects did not seem to take into
to find that
completed by 1936, and the commission was disappointed training of Haitians
the preparation for the political and administrative
of government had been inadequate.s
in the responsibilities --- Page 243 ---
WITHDRAWAL
Forbes said that the Russell-Borno
In private talks with Hoover,
"without the propaganda .
team had pushed through reforms the
and in a letter
which is necessary to 'sell the idea to
people,"
had been
friend Forbes noted that the most serious failing
to a
from "the fact that the Americans sent
racial prejudice resulting
selected from the point of view
down were not always judiciously
of locality of origin." >> 22
report was mainly
In spite of all these criticisms, the commission's
had made
Forbes later remarked that the commission the hostile
laudatory.
criticisms" SO as to avoid giving
"careful and guarded
and Latin America an opportunity to
press in the United States
Forbes felt that Russell and Borno
attack Russell and the marines.
report, which recomdeal" out of the commission's
got a "dirty
and the commission went out of its
mended that Russell be recalled,
his promotion by way of
way to praise Russell and recommended
was
23 Indeed, Russell's demise as high commissioner
compensation."
of American policy rather than by any percaused by the reversal
served faithfully as the chosen instrusonal shortcomings. He had
from 1922 on and was now being
ment of State Department policy transition to the new policy of
made a scapegoat to facilitate
when department
disengagement. Those few instances
gracious
reproachments over Russell's
officials indulged in hand-wringing of press censorship and the
arbitrary methods, as with his handling
to the
reform, can be ascribed more
department's
1928 constitutional
Russell's part. The department had
own foibles than to failings on
and could not reaset up the occupation as a military undertaking Moreover, Russell's
sonably blame the marines for running it as such.
in Haiti
eight years' service as the State Department's representative In 1930 Assistant
had cost him stature within the Marine Corps.
of State Francis White wrote to Stimson recommending and Marine
Secretary despite his not being liked in the Navy
that Russell,
close associations with the State Department,
Corps because of past
commandant of the Marine Corps
be promoted to major general well with the State Department and
precisely because he worked
among them Major
understood its point of view. Other candidates, in the European
General Smedley Butler, all had combat experience
out that
known as hard-line marines. White pointed
war and were
orientation, would not fit in with the
they, because of their military
Marine Corps.
of State Francis White wrote to Stimson recommending and Marine
Secretary despite his not being liked in the Navy
that Russell,
close associations with the State Department,
Corps because of past
commandant of the Marine Corps
be promoted to major general well with the State Department and
precisely because he worked
among them Major
understood its point of view. Other candidates, in the European
General Smedley Butler, all had combat experience
out that
known as hard-line marines. White pointed
war and were
orientation, would not fit in with the
they, because of their military --- Page 244 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
Russell was appointed major
department's new Caribbean policy."
general commandant in 1934. e
released on the return
The White House, in a palliative statement that "The commission was
of the Forbes Commission, announced results accomplished under
particularly impressed with the splendid
who, along
and efficient direction of General Russell,"
the sincere
"full credit" for substantial progress in
with Borno, would be given
order. 25 The commission
public health, public works, and public doubt that Haiti, under the
reported that "There is no room for
made
material
has
great
control of the American Occupation, and cited as examples the conprogress in the past fifteen years" modern hospitals, the registrastruction of 153 rural clinics and 11
increase in linear feet of
tion of 2,800 automobiles, a threefold
and telephones.
bridges, 800 miles of roads, and new lighthouses had been mainly
The commission also noted that this progress
the
of only eight years, since a constructive
achieved over
span until after the 1922 reorganization. In
policy was not carried out
observed that the
conclusion, however, Forbes and his colleagues fulfilled original expositive achievements, though great, had not understand the social
pectations: "The failure of the Occupation to
there
to plant democracy
problems of Haiti, its brusque attempt to set up a middle classby drill and harrow, its determination
to Americans--all these
however wise and necessary it may seem
works in this land
explain why, in part, the high hopes of our good
have not been realized." 26
that Russell be replaced by a
The commission recommended the United States interpose no objections
nonmilitary minister, that
and internal taxes, and, reiterating
to reductions in customs duties
that "in retaining officers now
the advice of the 1922 Senate Inquiry, Americans for employment
in the Haitian service, or selecting new
those free from strong
therein, the utmost care be taken that only
should be preferred. s? 27 Preparations for American
racial antipathies
of Russell in 1930 was the Hoover administra0 Another factor in the jettisoning with the Marine Corps. Major General Comtion's less than enthusiastic relationship General Little in Haiti as Franklin D. Roosevelt
mandant Ben H. Fuller wrote to
1933, that "The attitude of the Administrawas taking over the presidency in March, favorable than it was a month ago and the future
tion towards us is distinctly more when the Engineer [Hoover] was hamstringing us.
doesn't look sO dark as it did Louis McCarty Little Papers, MARCORPS MUS.
Fuller to Little, Mar. 14, 1933;
administra0 Another factor in the jettisoning with the Marine Corps. Major General Comtion's less than enthusiastic relationship General Little in Haiti as Franklin D. Roosevelt
mandant Ben H. Fuller wrote to
1933, that "The attitude of the Administrawas taking over the presidency in March, favorable than it was a month ago and the future
tion towards us is distinctly more when the Engineer [Hoover] was hamstringing us.
doesn't look sO dark as it did Louis McCarty Little Papers, MARCORPS MUS.
Fuller to Little, Mar. 14, 1933; --- Page 245 ---
WITHDRAWAL
Haitianization of
withdrawal were to be accelerated by more rapid
the Garde and the other treaty services. distressed by the recent uprisings,
Russell, who had been greatly official, caused him to feel "as
which, according to one occupation under his eyes, 99 28 was incensed
though his life's work was crumbling
Commission and bitterly
the criticisms made by the Forbes
over
letter of defense and vindication which he
attacked it in a long
Russell argued that the
submitted to Secretary of State Stimson.
not long enough to
commission had been in Haiti only fifteen days,
that the comof the complicated situation,
gain an understanding
sentiment favored the opposition was
mission's statement that public had held back its forces SO as not
unfair because the Occupation
had given 90 percent of its
to create disorder, that the commission
while the treaty offithe "outs" make false charges
time to hearing
to present their side," and
cials had been given "scant opportunity him for devotion to the
that the commission was wrong in them," praising since he had always acted
interests of Haiti "as he conceived
Russell took personal
under strict orders from the State Department. plan put into effect
credit for having formulated the compromise the various Occuo and stated that he had urged
by the commission
Haitians and that promotions had
pation departments to promote
he observed: "The
as
In this connection
been as rapid possible.
of the Garde is due in a large
reason for the present efficiency the fact that the promotion of Haitian
measure, in my opinion, to
officer must thoroughly learn his
officers has not been rapid. An
to a higher grade."
before being promoted
duties in a lower grade
reference to American racism, RusIn response to the commission's
has been brought to
sell replied that "No case of racial prejudice difficult to underattention for many years and it is, therefore,
my
remarks or on what it based them."
stand the Commission's
Forbes
with its arrangements for
As for the wisdom of the
plan,
"little better fitted
free elections, Russell felt that the Haitians were and that "The people
than they were in 1915"
for self-government
and more bold and insulting and in my >9
have recently grown more
force would be a grave error.
mind any reduction in the military
Commission credited Frank E. Evans, COL, USMC,
e James Kerney of the Forbes with having originally proposed the compromise plan.
commandant of the Carde,
12, 1931.
SD 838.00/2969, Kerney to Stimson, May
As for the wisdom of the
plan,
"little better fitted
free elections, Russell felt that the Haitians were and that "The people
than they were in 1915"
for self-government
and more bold and insulting and in my >9
have recently grown more
force would be a grave error.
mind any reduction in the military
Commission credited Frank E. Evans, COL, USMC,
e James Kerney of the Forbes with having originally proposed the compromise plan.
commandant of the Carde,
12, 1931.
SD 838.00/2969, Kerney to Stimson, May --- Page 246 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION
OF HAITI, 1915-1934
Russell opposed the gradual withdrawal of
that the United States should
forces and recommended
gram, SO often heard
"get in-or get out." 80 This last epiof the occupation, among military officers during the early days
government if the presumably alluded to the need for total
While the
occupation was ever to be really successful. military
Forbes Commission reported
accomplishments of the
favorably on the material
American rule, its
Occupation and on the beneficent effects of
drawal
prognosis for Haiti's future after
was highly pessimistic. In its final
American withstated that it was
report the commission
after free elections "under no delusions" as to what would
and the
of the
happen
told Hoover that the
departure
marines, and Forbes
rather
legislative election
offered
than a remedy for the Haitian
plan
a palliative
mentally unsound. " 81 Forbes wrote situation, which was "fundaIndia, with whom he
Lord Irwin, British viceroy of
American
corresponded comparing the
problems in Haiti with British
similarities of
Haitians were unfit for
problems in India, that the
a benevolent
democracy and that "Their best
is for
despot to arise who, like Porfirio Diaz
hope
guide them with wisdom,
in Mexico, will
bled times ahead of them." firmness, 82
and honesty through the troucal of the attitude of American Forbes's reference to Diaz e was typiHaiti and was quite
officials who had been involved with
Borno client-government. compatible with American sponsorship of the
Supporters of the
justified it as a necessary form of benevolent Occupation had long
question was, of course, benevolent for
despotism. The crucial
Borno in Haiti were benevolent
whom? Diaz in Mexico and
therefore supported by the United to American interests and were
criteria for a "good" benevolent States, In Haiti, as elsewhere, the
coupled with pro-United States despotism were prolonged stability
memorial "A Marine Looks politics. In his unpublished personal
Russell
Back on Haiti" (about 1934),
suggested, in what can be
General
allusion to his own
interpreted as a thinly veiled
for a country in which performance the
in Haiti: "A military dictatorship
foundations of democracy do not
Porfirio Diaz was a ruthless dictator who
yet
foreign investors and the Porfrian
opened up Mexico to exploitation
the mass of the population and thus oligarchy without meaningful compensations for by
1911-24.
precipitated the bloody Mexican Revolution of
memorial "A Marine Looks politics. In his unpublished personal
Russell
Back on Haiti" (about 1934),
suggested, in what can be
General
allusion to his own
interpreted as a thinly veiled
for a country in which performance the
in Haiti: "A military dictatorship
foundations of democracy do not
Porfirio Diaz was a ruthless dictator who
yet
foreign investors and the Porfrian
opened up Mexico to exploitation
the mass of the population and thus oligarchy without meaningful compensations for by
1911-24.
precipitated the bloody Mexican Revolution of --- Page 247 ---
WITHDRAWAL
first
is that it be
exist is not necessarily a bad thing. Its
requirement long time and
enough to give stable rule for a comparatively
strong that it have some sense of obligation to the people."
secondly
close affinity between Russell, Borno,
On this basis there was a
Lord Cromer, British high
Forbes, and Russell's earlier counterpart,
that after complete
commissioner in Egypt. Russell prophesied
of
withdrawal Haiti would "return to a system military
American
"such dictatorships
dictatorships," > but that, thanks to the occupation,
in the past. 9 88
and reactionary as
should not be as cynical, cruel,
with both the antidemocratic
Russell's prognosis was in keeping
and with the persisting
policies and practices of the Occupation
in the Caribbean.
obsession concerning order and stability
American
conciliation which
Despite the new emphasis on good-neighbor the question of
followed in the aftermath of the 1929 uprisings, American officials
despotism in Haiti was by no means irrelevant. future would be the
factor in Haiti's
realized that an important of the Garde, and gave due considerapotential political domination
In 1930 a marine officer
tion to the choice of a Haitian commander. Démosthène P. Calixte, as
recommended the eventual selection,
command he has
follows: "I believe that if he were left in supreme assaults on the
sufficient strength of character to withstand and political that he will be the
Garde. I believe he is absolutely ruthless
of the
if left as Commandant
behind the administration
power
e
Garde."*
intentions of the United States government,
Whatever the
of dictators Rafael Trujillo
Calixte did not follow in the footsteps
both
Republic) and Anastasio Somoza (Nicaragua),
(Dominican
of marine-nurtured
of whom had risen to power as commanders dictatorships of thirtyconstabularies. Trujillo and Somoza enjoyed scholar has asserted
and one
one and twenty years, respectively, until and after death, testifies
that "The endurance of their regimes,
armed forces which first
to their hold on modern and centralized
92 85 In Haiti,
during United States intervention."
came into being
Affairs and then
chief of the Division of Latin American
e Dana G. Munro, the period of withdrawal, says that the State Department with
minister to Haiti during
dictatorship in Haiti. My interview
had no intention of setting up a military
Munro, Princeton, N.J., Feb. 28, 1968.
and one
one and twenty years, respectively, until and after death, testifies
that "The endurance of their regimes,
armed forces which first
to their hold on modern and centralized
92 85 In Haiti,
during United States intervention."
came into being
Affairs and then
chief of the Division of Latin American
e Dana G. Munro, the period of withdrawal, says that the State Department with
minister to Haiti during
dictatorship in Haiti. My interview
had no intention of setting up a military
Munro, Princeton, N.J., Feb. 28, 1968. --- Page 248 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
unsuccessful coup d'état in 1938 and was
Calixte lost out in an
forced into exile. e
concurred in the gloomy predictions of
Other American officials
Commandant Evans created some
the Forbes Commission. Garde
publicly prophesying in
consternation in the State Department by
States assuming a
1931 that "Future events may see the United following our withresumption of its present activities in Haiti, de la Rue attributed
drawal in 1936." 36 Financial Adviser Sidney
stimulus of
of the 1920s to the artificial
the economic prosperity
in 1929, rather than to
Brazilian coffee valorization, which collapsed
and noted
made under the occupation
any fundamental progress
future prosperity unless crop
that there was little reason to expect
Haitian
will
could be achieved: ". . . the
problem
diversification
It is
and for the present not in any way
last beyond our time.
ugly
situation. It is one pregwe face an almost impossible
solved .
Describing his work as
nant with trouble and financially a mess."
as being "merely
financial adviser in the wake of the 1929 uprisings the morbid prede la Rue echoed
defensive" and not constructive,
nous le deluge. s2 87
diction attributed to Louis XV: "Apres
about the future
Secretary of State Stimson also was pessimistic President-elect Franklin D.
of Haiti and during a 1933 visit with think the United States had
Roosevelt stated that he did not
recorded his conversation
achieved lasting stability in Haiti. Stimson whether the job in Haiti was
with Roosevelt: "He [Roosevelt] told asked him I did not think it would stay
finished and would stay put. I
whether he knew of any selfpermanently put and asked him
and he could not
community which had stayed put,
governing negro
on Haiti by reassur-
>> 88 Stimson concluded his comments
suggest any.
States was rapidly pulling the marines
ing Roosevelt that the United
progress in finishing our
out of Haiti and was "making very good
job for the present. > 89
after the departure of the
Public disorders in Haiti continued and the selection of provisional
Forbes Commission in March, 1930, Commissioner Russell referred
President Roy in April. In what High
the Americans," 9>
to "create a reign of terror among
to as an attempt
the homes of Marine Colonels Cutts and
local arsonists burned down
who
by his friend and political ally Trujillo,
*In exile Calixte was supported in the Dominican army.
eventually gave him a commission
our
out of Haiti and was "making very good
job for the present. > 89
after the departure of the
Public disorders in Haiti continued and the selection of provisional
Forbes Commission in March, 1930, Commissioner Russell referred
President Roy in April. In what High
the Americans," 9>
to "create a reign of terror among
to as an attempt
the homes of Marine Colonels Cutts and
local arsonists burned down
who
by his friend and political ally Trujillo,
*In exile Calixte was supported in the Dominican army.
eventually gave him a commission --- Page 249 ---
WITHDRAWAL
Horton as well as a number of other
movie house. 40 Rumors of
homes, several stores, and a
Jacmel, and the Garde incendiary activity caused disturbances in
of a large hostile mob was forced to resort to rifle fire over the heads
at Abricots. In
an extensive program of
mid-1930 the Garde undertook
of disorders culminated training in antiriot techniques. The series
in a general strike of
sorters, logwood workers,
longshoremen, coffee
and sanitary department agricultural laborers, and public works
1930. The
employees at Cap Haitien in December,
longshoremen, government proposed a 50 percent increase in
which was accepted by
wages for
after they were informed that the Garde steamship company agents
safety of strikebreakers.
could not guarantee the
Occupation officials
variously to Port-au-Prince
attributed the strike
munist propaganda."
politicians, labor agitators, and ComPresident Roy's provisional
May to November, 1930,
government, which held office from
elections for October. The scheduled the long-awaited legislative
officials to remain
State Department ordered American
to their barracks strictly neutral, and the marines were confned
during the balloting. American
Grummon, who referred to the
Chargé Stuart
est election that has ever been held election as "unquestionably the fairthat the election had "resulted in the history of Haiti," reported
American,
in the complete defeat of all
pro-Borno and moderate
prothat "The real hero of the elections candidates." Grummon noted
violent anti-American
is Joseph Jolibois fils, whose
ican imperialism,
sentiments and tirades against so-called Amerduring his three-year
America, are well known to the Department. pilgrimage >2 42 throughout Latin
Jolibois was, according to an American
called the "Borno-Made man" because he intelligence report, often
thanks to the numerous
had risen from obscurity
writing
prison terms he served under Borno for
ture featured anti-occupation newspaper articles. 48 His
a photograph of himself
campaign literarocks; the
in a prison uniform
picture was obviously taken after his
breaking
seen breaking rocks with a broom handle
release since he is
shoes. Jolibois, age
and wearing shiny dress
presidency, but his thirty-nine, was too young to qualify for the
of another
resounding election victory ensured the selection
long-time Haitian nationalist, Sténio
president when the legislature voted in
Vincent, as the new
November, 1930.
orno for
ture featured anti-occupation newspaper articles. 48 His
a photograph of himself
campaign literarocks; the
in a prison uniform
picture was obviously taken after his
breaking
seen breaking rocks with a broom handle
release since he is
shoes. Jolibois, age
and wearing shiny dress
presidency, but his thirty-nine, was too young to qualify for the
of another
resounding election victory ensured the selection
long-time Haitian nationalist, Sténio
president when the legislature voted in
Vincent, as the new
November, 1930. --- Page 250 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
election of Vincent, the United States
In conjunction with the
civilian minister to Haiti, replacing
appointed Dr. Dana G. Munro as
of Russell, following the
High Commissioner Russell. The removal marked the end of Amerearlier departure of Borno and Freeman,
to assume the funcican military dictation. Munro was instructed
but he was to
exercised by the high commissioner,
tions hitherto
of action of the new Vincent
avoid interfering with the freedom view of the new United States
government as much as possible in
out in Munro's
policy toward Haiti. This new policy was spelled withdraw from any
instructions: "It is this Government's desire to the earliest moment
in the internal affairs of Haiti at
that
participation
be effected with a reasonable hope
when such withdrawal can
which compelled its interthere will be no return to the conditions
vention in 1915."*
back Colonel Louis McCarty
In appointing Munro and in bringing
commander, the
the Haitians, as brigade
Little, who was liked by
friendlier relations with the Haitians
United States hoped to develop
however, remained a factor.
through tact and diplomacy. Racism,
on liberty in Port-auIn 1931 Little noted that marines misbehaving 99 handled by the
Prince were never, "except in grave emergency," would provoke a situation
Garde because "Blacks arresting Whites
abstained
45 Minister Munro pointedly
which might cause a riot."
American Club and succeeded
from joining the racially segregated
Washington's
relations to the extent that a
George
bein warming
by cordial social mixing
Birthday celebration was accompanied
tween Haitians and Americans.
however, not enough to ensure
The efforts at conciliation were, withdrawal. The functioning of the
a smooth and graceful American
in the aftermath of the 1929
treaty services broke down rapidly
felt
For one thing, officials of the American occupation to their
uprisings.
criticized, and Munro referred
that they had been unjustly
obstacle to efficiency. 46 Half the
"very low morale" as a principal
resigned within a year after
Americans in the Service Technique
civilian and military perthe 1929 uprisings and other American
as possible. A
the desire to get out as quickly
sonnel expressed
reported that American employees
New York Times correspondent resented the fact that General Russell
of the Occupation especially
directed from Washington
had been made "the goat" for policies
of the American occupation to their
uprisings.
criticized, and Munro referred
that they had been unjustly
obstacle to efficiency. 46 Half the
"very low morale" as a principal
resigned within a year after
Americans in the Service Technique
civilian and military perthe 1929 uprisings and other American
as possible. A
the desire to get out as quickly
sonnel expressed
reported that American employees
New York Times correspondent resented the fact that General Russell
of the Occupation especially
directed from Washington
had been made "the goat" for policies --- Page 251 ---
WITHDRAWAL
Russell's
that the Forbes Commission had never made public
and
that the State Dedefense, which justified his actions by stating would have embarrassed
partment had ordered them, because this
deficits
the administration in Washington." Large government treaty
were another factor in curtailing
caused by the Depression de la Rue reported in 1931 that the
services; Financial Adviser
of recent years" had largely been
"ambitious developmental program "insufficient to strengthen the police
given up and that funds were
badly needed improveand constabulary, or to construct many
over Haitian finances
ments." 92 48 De la Rue who retained firm control
of contraction
despite the change in governments, pursued a policy
Taxes
faced with reduced revenues caused by the Depression.
when
employees were discharged
were increased while many government 49
on the foreign debt to
and others had their wages cut. Payments to be made on schedule.
American bondholders continued, of course, Latin-American countries
In 1935 Haiti was the only one of fifteen which had not defaulted. 50
offered dollar bonds
holding publicly
difficulties were compounded by political
Low morale and fiscal
found that the Vincent governproblems as Minister Munro soon
plans for
was not willing to conform to State Department
ment
American terms. In November, 1931, a State
gradual withdrawal on
the time Munro had taken over in
Department officer noted that at
that Haitianization
earlier, the department had hoped
Haiti a year
and
process and
of the occupation would be an "orderly of gradual the Treaty Services
that the minimum American control in any
5> 51 Vincent, however, kept up a
would continue for several years. Haitianization in a series of conconstant harassment for immediate
the Public Works Servtroversies involving the Service Technique,
1931, that the
and the Garde. Munro reported in January,
ice,
being subjected to severe pressure by
Vincent government was accused it of "acquiescing in a policy of
Haitian nationalists who
to feel that real cooperadelay" and stated that he was "beginning
after all is the only
tion is almost out of the question. . . . Force
thing these people have any respect for."s the State Department
In response to pressure from the Haitians of the Public Works Departacquiesced in complete Haitianization found himself fighting what amounted
ment in February, and Munro
harassment from
action against constant political
to a rearguard
to severe pressure by
Vincent government was accused it of "acquiescing in a policy of
Haitian nationalists who
to feel that real cooperadelay" and stated that he was "beginning
after all is the only
tion is almost out of the question. . . . Force
thing these people have any respect for."s the State Department
In response to pressure from the Haitians of the Public Works Departacquiesced in complete Haitianization found himself fighting what amounted
ment in February, and Munro
harassment from
action against constant political
to a rearguard --- Page 252 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
refused to agree to
Haitian nationalists. The Vincent government
and Munro refor gradual Haitianization,
the department's plan
that we cannot permit this
ported in June: "It is obvious, however, from executing our own
internal political situation to prevent us
desires is
of withdrawal. I assume that what the Department 58
policy Haitianization either by agreement or by our own action." back down in a
after this Stimson instructed Munro to
Shortly
of a Haitian Garde officer, noting
controversy over the promotion
of Haiti," which
that the alternative was "virtual military occupancy the United States." In
would not be tolerated by public opinion in White had written
March, Assistant Secretary of State Francis
in "a desire,
news from Haiti had resulted
Munro that discouraging
to withdraw from Haiti bag
on the part of the President [Hoover), >9 55
and baggage immediately if possible.
withdrawal plan
abandoned the gradual
The State Department described by W. R. Scott of the Division
in favor of a new policy
follows: "It was decided that, since
of Latin American Affairs as
control over the Treaty Services
we could no longer exert a proper it would be better to turn over all
for which we were responsible,
far as this could be done conAmerican activities in Haiti in SO
faith toward the
obligations and our good
sistently with our treaty
holders of Haitian bonds." 56
lamented
a long-time critic of the Occupation,
Ernest Gruening, when the United States might conceivably
that "Just at a time
to the Haitians, the cumulative
render some genuine assistance
of cooperation difficult." 57
errors of the past render the possibility
effective assistance
Actually there was little possibility of rendering limitations precluded
demoralization of personnel and fiscal
since
activities. In any case the United States sacrificed
new development
to the exigencies of a policy
what little was left of the uplift programs
a Haitianization
withdrawal. Munro concluded
that stressed rapid
in August, 1931, after
agreement with the Vincent government
act of
the
and concessions on both sides, and as an
goodwill
threats
of formally ending martial law.
United States made the gesture
but rather the
The crucial issue, however, was not Haitianization financial interests. The
of redefning the status of American
problem
abandoned its earlier encouragement and superState Department investments in view of the new policy of "narvision of American
what little was left of the uplift programs
a Haitianization
withdrawal. Munro concluded
that stressed rapid
in August, 1931, after
agreement with the Vincent government
act of
the
and concessions on both sides, and as an
goodwill
threats
of formally ending martial law.
United States made the gesture
but rather the
The crucial issue, however, was not Haitianization financial interests. The
of redefning the status of American
problem
abandoned its earlier encouragement and superState Department investments in view of the new policy of "narvision of American --- Page 253 ---
WITHDRAWAL
the
activities in Haiti. > 58 An ironic indication of
rowing American
with respect to private investments
reversal in American policy
L. Farnham, who, as Bryan's conwas the decline and fall of Roger
the 1915 intervention
fidant, had played a major role in engineering support for the Naand in securing unflinching State Department Bank. By the late 1920s his
tional Railway and for National City
considerably. American
influence with the department had declined
railway confinancial advisers rejected several earlier exploitative
in a
Farnham, and in 1930 he was reduced,
tracts proposed by
backing, to threatening Amerifutile attempt to procure department French military intervention on bewith British and
can officials
with a French embargo on Haitian
half of the National Railway, disclosures to the American press about
coffee, and with personal
upset the chairman of
conditions in Haiti that would presumably de la Rue characterized
59 Financial Adviser
the Republican party."
that Farnham's desperate
the threats as "wild," and Munro reported of little consequence since
tactic of shutting down the railway was
carrying on a destructive competition
motor trucks were already
additional traffic. Munro
able to handle any
and were entirely
that Farnham had "aged a great deal . .
confided to Francis White
if
to be increasing
but his capacity for mischief seems, anything,
rather than decreasing. >) 60
extending extraordinary
The State Department's policy against
and
businessmen became more systematic
assistance to American
insisted that American finanstringent after 1929. The department
withdrawal in order
cial control continue after the pending troop holders of the 1922 bonds
the existing commitments to
to safeguard
forbidden. The United States
but new commitments were strictly
permission to float a new
refused to grant the Vincent government
on post-1936 finandevelopment loan, stipulating that an agreement first, and that even
would have to be reached
cial arrangements States could not "in any sense urge or recommend
then the United
this business for Haiti."* In an
to bankers that they undertake the chief of the Division of Latin
April, 1933, policy memorandum, that the United States did not want to "exAmerican Affairs noted
This printhe period of its financial stewardship.
tend in any way
mind in connection with any attempts on
ciple must be borne in
financing. 97 02 Thus Haiti's
Haiti's part to obtain further foreign
that an agreement first, and that even
would have to be reached
cial arrangements States could not "in any sense urge or recommend
then the United
this business for Haiti."* In an
to bankers that they undertake the chief of the Division of Latin
April, 1933, policy memorandum, that the United States did not want to "exAmerican Affairs noted
This printhe period of its financial stewardship.
tend in any way
mind in connection with any attempts on
ciple must be borne in
financing. 97 02 Thus Haiti's
Haiti's part to obtain further foreign --- Page 254 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
vaunted credit standing, achieved
attentiveness to the interests of through ten years of diligent
American
naught, since the attractiveness of Haiti bondholders, came to
tunity ultimately rested
as an investment
involvement.
on the extent of United States
opporgovernment
The
department's new policy of
in Haiti had an immediate effect narrowing American activities
branch, the Banque Nationale,
on National City Bank, whose
treasury and was inextricably served as the Haitian government
the interests of American
tied to the problem of safeguarding
bondholders.
Francis White, after a conversation
Assistant Secretary of State
resentative in July, 1930,
with a National City Bank
recorded: "The Bank
repHoover is going to abandon the
fears that President
relations in the larger Central Caribbean area on behalf of better
scuttle from Haiti, in which American countries and that we will
White added that the event the Bank wants to scuttle also." 68
concerned about
Bank was interested in selling out and was
the marines
public attacks in Congress and
were in Haiti to protect its interests. elsewhere that
City Bank made an unsolicited offer
In 1933 National
to the Haitian
to sell the Banque Nationale
government. Chairman of the Board
explained the offer to Secretary of State
James H. Perkins
that, while the Banque Nationale
Cordell Hull by asserting
erate profits," it was "an anomalous was capable of returning "modaccount of its governmental
element in our organization on
caused National
Bank
character and functions" and had
and private
City
to be "subjected to criticism from
sources for controlling a bank in
public
has such functions.' >> e Perkins, in what
another country which
on the long collaboration in
amounted to a final panegyric
preciation of the
Haiti, expressed the bank's "warm
the State
support and many courtesies" it had received from apFrench Department since the time it originally
interests in the Banque Nationale "at the bought out the
Honorable William Jennings Bryan. 92 64
suggestion of the
The final sale of the Banque Nationale
ment was not concluded until
to the Haitian govern1935, by which
e The American
time, after various
Armour that the offer manager of sale of the Banque Nationale, Walter
such as those writing in the was Nation intended by Perkins as a gesture Voorhies, to silence told Minister
tended to hold on to the Banque, which and had New Republic, but that Perkins really critics, inworst years of the Depression. 838.516/275, Norman made a steady return even during the
Armour to Hull, Nov. 15, 1933.
ale
ment was not concluded until
to the Haitian govern1935, by which
e The American
time, after various
Armour that the offer manager of sale of the Banque Nationale, Walter
such as those writing in the was Nation intended by Perkins as a gesture Voorhies, to silence told Minister
tended to hold on to the Banque, which and had New Republic, but that Perkins really critics, inworst years of the Depression. 838.516/275, Norman made a steady return even during the
Armour to Hull, Nov. 15, 1933. --- Page 255 ---
WITHDRAWAL
difficulties in obtaining ratification
transaction included
by the Haitian
the
a plan to transfer the
legislature,
financial supervision to the
functions of American
a board of directors
Banque, which was to be controlled by
bondholders," This dominated by representatives of the American
plan, which proved to be
bondholders, was the last in a series of State unacceptable to the
to reduce the responsibility of the United Department attempts
direct supervision of Haitian finances in States government for
to protect the interests of the bondholders. fulfillment of obligations
chief of the Division of Latin
In 1933 Edwin C. Wilson,
partment had rejected
American Affairs, noted that the devarious Haitian
American financial control because
proposals for continued
"they would have meant
supervision over the collection of customs duties in
merely
effective control over the Haitian
Haiti, with no
penditures are kept in line with budget in order to see that exproblem of
receipts. This is the crux of the
maintaining Haiti's finances in
Wilson described the American
healthy condition."
the basis for the subsequent
counterproposal, which became
as calling for the
Executive Accord of August 7, 1933,
whose
replacement of the American financial
powers were "exceedingly broad and are
adviser,
phases of the Haitian Government's
exercised over all
fiscal representative whose
finances," with an American
much more limited. The fiscal powers, according to Wilson, would be
collect customs but would "merely representative would continue to
Service and have
supervise" the Internal Revenue
ice of the
custody over only those funds necessary for
of
foreign debt. There would be no "broad
servpowers as under the 1915 treaty" and controls general grant
government budget would be limited to those
over the Haitian
expenses are kept within the
"necessary to see that
partment hoped that the new Government's revenues." >, 66 The deto Haiti and would still
agreement would be more palatable
necessitated by
contain the essential features of control
The
existing obligations to American
Vincent government, itself
bondholders.
sure from extreme Haitian
increasingly bold and under prestianization and withdrawal of nationalists the
to procure immediate Hainecessary American
marines, also wanted to
tion for
approval for use of cash
procure
a new foreign developmental reserves plus authorizaAmerican plan for continued financial loan and agreed to the
control in September, 1932. 67
's revenues." >, 66 The deto Haiti and would still
agreement would be more palatable
necessitated by
contain the essential features of control
The
existing obligations to American
Vincent government, itself
bondholders.
sure from extreme Haitian
increasingly bold and under prestianization and withdrawal of nationalists the
to procure immediate Hainecessary American
marines, also wanted to
tion for
approval for use of cash
procure
a new foreign developmental reserves plus authorizaAmerican plan for continued financial loan and agreed to the
control in September, 1932. 67 --- Page 256 ---
UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
a
however, rejected the new treaty by
The Haitian legislature,
fervor. The United
unanimous vote in an outburst of nationalistic accelerated HaitianizaStates continued to withhold approval on
the financial
tion and advance withdrawal of the marines pending Norman Arsettlement, and in January, 1983, American Minister reported that it
who had replaced Munro in October, 1982,
now
mour,
of the $400,000 credit
might be possible "to trade our approval
of future financial adoffered for a ratified accord on the question 93 68 The department refused
ministration and other pending issues."
materialized
consider the proposed loan project, which never
to
of financial negotiations, while Vinanyhow, until after conclusion financial settlement after the tercent offered to agree to a future
session in return for
mination of the current obstructive Haitianization legislative
and troop withpresent American concessions on
ratification from the
drawal." Ultimately the problem of securing American control,
legislature, which opposed all forms of continued and Vincent and
eliminated bypassing the legislature entirely,
was
by
satisfactory agreement emthe United States reached a mutually 7, 1938. Under Secretary
bodied in the Executive Accord of August Roosevelt that he was
of State William Phillips wrote President outcome" of the negotiations and
"highly gratified at the successful
of American marines would
pointed out that the early withdrawal United States throughout
ce "greatly enhance the prestige" of the
of practical applicaLatin America and would be "a signal example 70
tion of your policy of the 'good neighbor." American financial control
for continued
The Accord provided
in
American-sponfiscal
as stipulated previous
by a
representative
would control customs, insored versions. The fiscal representative limitations on the Haitian
spect the Internal Revenue Service, set and control reserve funds.
budget, and be able to set up
government
forbidden to increase its indebtedness,
The Haitian government was
of investments without his conchange tariffs and taxes, or dispose
continue until all the outsent. This financial supervision was in to 1952, were liquidated. The
standing bonds, scheduled to expire
American troops by
United States, in turn, agreed to withdraw before the 1936 date stipuOctober, 1934, one and one half years the number of Americans emlated in the 1915 treaty, and to limit
ployed by the fiscal representative."
control reserve funds.
budget, and be able to set up
government
forbidden to increase its indebtedness,
The Haitian government was
of investments without his conchange tariffs and taxes, or dispose
continue until all the outsent. This financial supervision was in to 1952, were liquidated. The
standing bonds, scheduled to expire
American troops by
United States, in turn, agreed to withdraw before the 1936 date stipuOctober, 1934, one and one half years the number of Americans emlated in the 1915 treaty, and to limit
ployed by the fiscal representative." --- Page 257 ---
WITHDRAWAL
defended the accord as the
President Vincent and his supporters
aroused
under the circumstances, but the agreement
best possible
who considered it a disbitter protests from Haitian nationalists, substantial continuation of the
astrous capitulation that entailed financial adviser." American
exercised by the
control previously
charged that the accord validated
critics, such as Ernest Gruening,
acting as a collecting agent
the "old deal" of the State Department
1933, Vincent, refor American financial interests." In November,
to regain his
dissatisfaction in Haiti and trying
acting to political
of Haiti's Second Independence, wrote
stature as the champion
that the United States give new
President Roosevelt requesting
renouncing 'useless financial
proof of its Good Neighbor policy by that the United States could
control in Haiti." Roosevelt replied
bondholders: "Except
not abandon its commitments to bondholders American are entitled to insist,
which the
for this obligation upon
too
to discontinue at once its
Government would be only
glad
my
with financial administration in Haiti.""
connection
the bondholders were moral, not legal; preThe commitments to
from Haiti also
Roosevelt's commitment to withdrawal
sumably
The issue did not die with the Vincent-Roosevelt
was a moral one.
the accord continued in the United
exchange. Agitation against embarrassment at home, since it apStates and caused Vincent
more active in championpeared that American organizations were himself. Moreover, the
ing Haitian independence than Vincent was
UruInter-American Conference at Montevideo,
upcoming Seventh
Haiti with a perfect opguay, held in December, 1933, provided United States for additional conportunity to apply pressure on the
out by Ernest Gruening,
cessions. This opportunity was pointed
to the conference,
himself a member of the American delegation then Haitian min1933, letter to Dantès Bellegarde,
in a September,
ister to Washington."
route to the Montevideo Conference
Secretary of State Hull, en
effort to impress
board the S.S. American Legion, made a special
of
on
with the nonimperialistic aspects
members of other delegations policy. Hull later recalled:
the United States Good Neighbor
as any of them. I tried to
I was as much in favor of nonintervention I could in my preliminary converput this point over as emphatically as
conference,
himself a member of the American delegation then Haitian min1933, letter to Dantès Bellegarde,
in a September,
ister to Washington."
route to the Montevideo Conference
Secretary of State Hull, en
effort to impress
board the S.S. American Legion, made a special
of
on
with the nonimperialistic aspects
members of other delegations policy. Hull later recalled:
the United States Good Neighbor
as any of them. I tried to
I was as much in favor of nonintervention I could in my preliminary converput this point over as emphatically as --- Page 258 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
need feel a desire to
sations with delegations SO that no representatives attacks on us did
the United States. Several
line up for a fight against
but they were actually not sO
come from Cuban and Haitian delegates,
strong as many had expected."
on the way to Montevideo, Hull
In wooing the Haitian delegation
withdrawal of Amerimade ambiguous oral references to complete
Barau, head of the Haitian delegation,
can financial control. Justin Hull had been disposed to give "full satisreported to Vincent that
that the continued financial
faction" to Haiti and that he recognized he had told the Haitian
while Hull said that
control was "unjust,"
Government would agree to and
delegation "that the American which would result in withdrawal
would welcome an arrangement financial control of Haiti" and
of American Government action in
inform the Haitian governthat he had instructed the department to
ment that a new arrangement was possible." credit for what apPresident Vincent, attempting to assume
triumph for Haiti, released to local newspapers
peared to be a great
from Barau describing Hull's alleged
the diplomatic correspondence
to be earlier instructions
along with what purported
new position the Haitian delegation to press for new concessions.
from Vincent to
liberation of the counthe complete
Haitian newspapers proclaimed Armour was left in the embarrassing
try, while American Minister
instructions from Washington to
position of waiting for supposed
United States desire to
of a new
inform the Haitian government
Barau soon complained to
change the financial arrangements."
the promised new proHull that Armour had not communicated more to say." All the
posal, and Hull replied that there was nothing Montevideo conference,
resolved after the
confusion was finally clear that there were no new concessions and
when Hull made it
"anxious desire" of the United
that, while he had reaffirmed the
with Haiti,"
States "to get released from this special relationship than lend moral support
would do no more
the State Department
loan to cover the remaining
to Haitian efforts to secure a refunding
In January, 1984, Hull
$11 million debt to American bondholders.
we will imdeclared that "When the debts are eliminated,
as the
publicly
out.
We are just as anxious to withdraw
mediately pull
.
Haitians are in wanting us to withdraw."s
when Hull made it
"anxious desire" of the United
that, while he had reaffirmed the
with Haiti,"
States "to get released from this special relationship than lend moral support
would do no more
the State Department
loan to cover the remaining
to Haitian efforts to secure a refunding
In January, 1984, Hull
$11 million debt to American bondholders.
we will imdeclared that "When the debts are eliminated,
as the
publicly
out.
We are just as anxious to withdraw
mediately pull
.
Haitians are in wanting us to withdraw."s --- Page 259 ---
WITHDRAWAL
in the mid-1930s and the
Given the scarcity of investment capital
to "extend in any
of the United States government
unwillingness
81 there was little hope
way the period of its financial stewardship, discussions Hull had
loan. During the Montevideo
for a refunding
alternative, that of having National
also suggested another possible
debt through its
City Bank insure the collection of the outstanding
the basis of
Nationale." This idea became
control of the Banque
Nationale to the Haitian
1935 sale of the Banque
the aforementioned
for the transfer of the funcgovernment, which included provisions
the
American
tions of American financial supervision to of Banque. the fact that their
bondholders were to be protected by virtue board of directors of the
would control the six-man
representatives of whom were to be selected by the Haitian governBanque, two
Bank, and two by the Foreign Bondment, two by National City
however, refused to COholders Protective Council. The council, from the State Departoperate with the plan despite strong urging played a leading role in
ment. Francis White, who had formerly
secretary
States financial policy in Haiti as assistant
shaping United
the American bondholders as
of state and was now representing
Bondholders Protective
of the Foreign
executive vice-president
"would not provide
Council, wrote Hull that the new arrangement of the bonds" as those
to the holders
guarantees as satisfactory the accord of August 7, 1933, in effect
currently in force. 83 This left
continued to supervise Haitian
and an American fiscal representative were transferred by a new
finances until 1941, when his functions
Nationale, which
to the fiscal department of the Banque
of
agreement
States
until full redemption
remained under United
supervision
the 1922 loan was completed in 1947. commitments to American
While the United States government's
until the bonds were
bondholders persisted as a source of contention and civilian perpaid, the withdrawal of American military
fully
smoothly according to the Haitianization agreesonnel proceeded the accord of August 7, 1933. A 1934 Haitian
ment incorporated in
recent
Haitians had grown
article stated that in
years
newspaper
of the marines, who were accepted,
apathetic to the presence accord the United States had agreed
though unwelcome." In the October, 1934. As an extra goodwill
to withdraw the last marines in
visit to Cap Haitien in
President Roosevelt, on a personal
gesture,
civilian perpaid, the withdrawal of American military
fully
smoothly according to the Haitianization agreesonnel proceeded the accord of August 7, 1933. A 1934 Haitian
ment incorporated in
recent
Haitians had grown
article stated that in
years
newspaper
of the marines, who were accepted,
apathetic to the presence accord the United States had agreed
though unwelcome." In the October, 1934. As an extra goodwill
to withdraw the last marines in
visit to Cap Haitien in
President Roosevelt, on a personal
gesture, --- Page 260 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
that the last marines would leave by AuJuly, 1984, announced
and his speech, which was partly in
gust 15. Roosevelt's visit,
in Haiti. It was the
French, created a highly favorable impression chief of a foreign state had
first time in Haitian history that the
continued to
visited the country. Roosevelt's personal graciousness and he rerelations in subsequent years
warm Haitian-American for Haiti. In a 1943 dinner speech on the
tained a special affection
President Elie Lescot, Roosevelt reoccasion of a visit by Haitian
of England who said that
marked: "I think it was a certain Queen
heart. When I die,
after her death "Calais' would be written on her because for all
I think 'Haiti' is going to be written on my heart in the Republic of
these years I have had the most intense interest that will never
and the development of its people in a way
Haiti
other nation." 32 85 As a final gesture of goodmean exploitation by any
donated leftover buildings and miliwill in 1934 the United States
the Haitian
valued at $120,000 to
government. the detary equipment
the Carde on August 1 and
The ceremony transferring
and cordial. A
of the marines on August 15 were dignified
was lowparture
wildly as the American flag
crowd of 10,000 applauded
by cheering,
ered, and the marine embarkation was accompanied the Second Inhostile incidents. 86 A "Festival of
but there were no
21, and President Vincent styled
dependence" took place on August
of Toussaint Louhimself the "Second Liberator" in the tradition
verture and Jean Jacques Dessalines. --- Page 261 ---
Epilogue
interventions in Caribbean countries
The series of American military of United States forces in Cuba in
that had begun with the landing
of Haiti
ended with the termination of the military occupation
the withdrawal of the marines from Haiti
in August, 1934. While
and Good Neighof noninterventionism
reflected a new policy
of American policy remained
bor conviviality, the basic objectives alluded to a special American
unchanged. In 1927 Henry L. Stimson
Doctrine, which was
distinct from the Monroe
"Isthmian Policy,"
sel-determination": "The
based upon the "principle of national however, imposed upon
national safety of our own country has,
influence the vital
interest in guarding from foreign
us a peculiar
Sea and the Panama Canal, and
sea route through the Caribbean
for foreign intervention may
therefore in seeing to it that no cause
arise along the borders of that route.":
American naval heFor the time being, recently established immediate foreign military
in the Caribbean barred any
the
gemony and the United States correspondingly de-emphasized more
threat,
facets of its presence in favor of achieving
overt military with all of Latin America.
friendly relations
of the 1930s was, in terms of means
The Good Neighbor policy
policy of force diplomacy.
if not ends, the antithesis of the previous
embarrassment to the
of Haiti had been a grave
The occupation
convince Latin-American nations that
United States in its efforts to
Roosevelt's Big Stick policy,
repudiating Theodore
it was genuinely
in the Caribbean barred any
the
gemony and the United States correspondingly de-emphasized more
threat,
facets of its presence in favor of achieving
overt military with all of Latin America.
friendly relations
of the 1930s was, in terms of means
The Good Neighbor policy
policy of force diplomacy.
if not ends, the antithesis of the previous
embarrassment to the
of Haiti had been a grave
The occupation
convince Latin-American nations that
United States in its efforts to
Roosevelt's Big Stick policy,
repudiating Theodore
it was genuinely --- Page 262 ---
STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934
UNITED
subseof the occupation served to cast doubts on
and the memory
of respect for the sovereignty and
quent American protestations those nations. Indeed, when situations
political independence of
States decided that its vital
eventually arose in which the United
means, the noninterinterests could not be secured through peaceful of Pigs invasion of
The 1961 Bay
vention doctrine was scrapped. and the 1965 marine intervention in
Cuba, the Johnson Doctrine,
the continuity of the same
the Dominican Republic demonstrated
of regional heprinciples of national security and assumptions intervention in Haiti. In
gemony that governed the 1915 marine François Duvalier's con1963, at the expiration of Haitian President
brigade stood off
stitutional term of office, a marine expeditionary disorders, which failed
Port-au-Prince in anticipation of political
to materialize."
the Good Neighbor policy in the late
Irrespective of the shift to
continued to view Haiti
1920s and early 1930s, American officials In 1932 Minister to Haiti Dana
as a special United States preserve.
new French loan because it
G. Munro, arguing against permitting French a control or new American
would probably lead to either
Doctrine is still just as esintervention, noted that "The Monroe
8 The United
sential as it ever was to our safety and comfort." Haiti after the withStates continued to play a dominant role in
until 1947
drawal of the marines, with financial control continuing trade regained its
while the American share of the Haitian import of decline in the 1930s.
previous level of 75 percent after a period exercised great influence
After World War II the United States
aid
e The
loans and foreign
projects.
through control of government
continues to play a major
American embassy in Port-au-Prince role, in Haitian internal and
role, many Haitians believe a dominant
external politics.
phenomenon of growing disparity
In view of the international nations and impoverished underin wealth between rich industrial little from almost twenty years
developed nations, Haiti profited control. Economic development
of direct and complete American
Haiti with $62 million
United States provided
a From 1945 to the mid-1960s the Leslie F.
Haiti of the Sixties, Object of
in grants and $33 million in loans. Washington Manigat, Center of Foreign Policy Research,
International Concern (Washington:
1964),. 19.
role, many Haitians believe a dominant
external politics.
phenomenon of growing disparity
In view of the international nations and impoverished underin wealth between rich industrial little from almost twenty years
developed nations, Haiti profited control. Economic development
of direct and complete American
Haiti with $62 million
United States provided
a From 1945 to the mid-1960s the Leslie F.
Haiti of the Sixties, Object of
in grants and $33 million in loans. Washington Manigat, Center of Foreign Policy Research,
International Concern (Washington:
1964),. 19. --- Page 263 ---
EPILOGUE
exclusive factors of Haiti's lack of natwas stymied by the mutually
expectation of lucrative profits
ural resources and the prerequisite
and entrepreneurs. In the
insisted upon by American investors
were still
themselves an index of impoverishment,
1960s low wages,
American capital. American efforts to
the major basis for attracting
of superior moral and technical
uplift Haiti through the example of racial and cultural barriers
attainment failed, partly because
relations between
the development of sympathetic
which prevented
American civil service reform, for instance,
Haitians and Americans.
Haitian politics reverted to
had little impact. After the occupation, administrations installed
whereby successive
the "spoils system"
their own partisans in public office."
of the Occupation
Even the substantial material accomplishments had been made
proved to be largely ephemeral. Notable progress The Occupation cleaned
in the fields of sanitation and public health. health clinics. An Amerithe streets and built hospitals and rural
stated that
up
various colonial situations
can author who investigated under the Occupation in Haiti compared
the public health services the British colonies of Kenya, Uganda,
satisfactorily with those in
and with the American
British East Africa, and British West Africa,
were inadequate
facilities in Puerto Rico. These facilities, however, swelling of the
the occupation, and with the subsequent
during
population became even more SO. construction of bridges, schools,
Public works projects, such as the since fallen into decay. In a
and communications systems, have
Marine Colonel Robrecent paper on the impact of the occupation, of the United States military
ert D. Heinl, Jr., who served as head describes the current state of
mission to Haiti from 1958 to 1963,
follows:
"infrastructural" achievements as
Occupation
non-existence. The satelTelephones are gone. Roads are approaching their docks crumbling away.
lite ports are obstructed by silt and wrecks, sanitation and electrificaUrban improvements are in decay and collapse; decline. Curiously, the only effection are, to say the least, in precarious infrastructural benefits is the modest
tive survivor of the occupation's unchanged since 1934, now provide
network of grass air-strips which,
than the bourrique
Haiti with its sole pervasive system of transport-other
[donkey].
,
follows:
"infrastructural" achievements as
Occupation
non-existence. The satelTelephones are gone. Roads are approaching their docks crumbling away.
lite ports are obstructed by silt and wrecks, sanitation and electrificaUrban improvements are in decay and collapse; decline. Curiously, the only effection are, to say the least, in precarious infrastructural benefits is the modest
tive survivor of the occupation's unchanged since 1934, now provide
network of grass air-strips which,
than the bourrique
Haiti with its sole pervasive system of transport-other
[donkey]. --- Page 264 ---
1915-1934
OCCUPATION OF HAITI,
UNITED STATES
of
the most significant legacy
The network of roads, potentially because almost all roads were undidn't last long
the occupation,
elaborate maintenance.
debt to American
paved and required
of retiring the Haitian
Haiti of
The Occupation's policy
deprived
bondholders in advance of contract requirements been used for development
revenues which might have and did not result in any
surplus during the prosperous 1920s In 1932 former Financial
projects
subsequent advantages.
advance debt recountervailing
who had promoted
Adviser W. W. Cumberland, remarked:
tirement during the mid-1920s,
finances have
all of us who have handled Haitian of what has
It seems to me that and even a little pride, in selling view higher than
reason for complacence
bonds are now
happened elsewhere. . . . Haitian country, I think, with the exception and that
those of any other Latin American that Cuba will soon go into default
of
of Cuba. And I predict
This is the direct result of our policy generous
Haiti will continue to pay.
as possible and accumulating
diminishing the debt as rapidly
cash balances."
have been a source
record of debt payment may but the alleged
The excellent
to American bondholders,
failed to maof great satisfaction terms of higher credit standing,
record of
benefits to Haiti, in fact that Haiti had an exemplary
terialize. Despite the
fell to a low of 68% on the depressed
Haitian bonds
residual aura of financial
debt payment,
in 1933, and any
loan terms after the
New York Stock Exchange have procured favorable
of further
soundness that might
with the relinquishment
like
was destroyed
financial policy,
world depression
Occupation
interests. On
American financial responsibility" looked first to American
facets of the occupation,
the Banque
most
American fiscal reforms strengthened
the positive side, created a sound national currency.
changes in
Nationale and
resulted in a number of important
isolaThe occupation
and political life. The century-long
Haitian economic, social,
outside world was rudely terminated
from the
both economic and
tion of the country into a close relationship,
subseas Haiti was drawn United States. American businessmen and sisal inpolitical, with the leading roles in local sugar, banana, The use of Portquently played
of a tourist industry.
dustries, and the beginnings
occupation,
the Banque
most
American fiscal reforms strengthened
the positive side, created a sound national currency.
changes in
Nationale and
resulted in a number of important
isolaThe occupation
and political life. The century-long
Haitian economic, social,
outside world was rudely terminated
from the
both economic and
tion of the country into a close relationship,
subseas Haiti was drawn United States. American businessmen and sisal inpolitical, with the leading roles in local sugar, banana, The use of Portquently played
of a tourist industry.
dustries, and the beginnings --- Page 265 ---
EPILOGUE
au-Prince as a liberty port for United
additional contact with
States Navy ships brought
a crucial role in
foreigners. Haiti's sisal plantations played
tary effort
supplying naval cordage for the United States miliduring World War II, and the
stantial American technical
country received subPolitically, the
assistance in the postwar era.
military
development of the Garde d'Haiti as an
organization plus the
of
efficient
tions networks resulted in
building functioning communicalitical authority in the
a decisive centralization of Haitian
aftermath of the
poceived of as a nonpartisan
occupation. The Garde, conpolitics and ensure orderly peacekeeping force that would dominate
strument of political domination. constitutional processes, became an inNicaragua,
As in the Dominican Republic and
nonpartisan American-sponsored ideal but did have constabularies fell far short of the
politics.10 While the
the desired effect of
creation of a
stabilizing
force in Haiti did not result in
powerful, centralized military
to the Somoza and Trujillo
long-term dictatorships comparable
Republic, political
regimes in Nicaragua and the Dominican
the entire
strongmen in Port-au-Prince were able to
country more effectively than ever
control
degree of centralization under the
before. The high
missioner had been based
authoritarian rule of a high comment
on the Garde and on an extensive
bureaucracy. Under the Americans, Haitian
governwere deliberately shifted from district
Garde personnel
down local prejudices and
to district in order to break
governmental institutions associations. Remnants of the centralized
by successive Haitian
and chains of command were taken over
along with the roads and governments. In time the Garde deteriorated
tral political domination telephone system, but the pattern of cenpersists.
American racism and instances of boorish
spurred the development of a new kind of
military dictation
The ideology of
national and racial
négritude, a direct reaction to white
pride,
domination, has become an important factor
American
President François Duvalier, who
in Haitian politics.
the black-nationalist
as a young man contributed to
literature of the
changed the national flag from blue and génération de Toccupation,
attempted to establish ties with
red to black and red, and
self-professed heir to the
emerging African nations.
"black revolution" : of
Duvalier,
regime as embodying the victory of the
1946, promoted his
masses over the oligarchy.
négritude, a direct reaction to white
pride,
domination, has become an important factor
American
President François Duvalier, who
in Haitian politics.
the black-nationalist
as a young man contributed to
literature of the
changed the national flag from blue and génération de Toccupation,
attempted to establish ties with
red to black and red, and
self-professed heir to the
emerging African nations.
"black revolution" : of
Duvalier,
regime as embodying the victory of the
1946, promoted his
masses over the oligarchy. --- Page 266 ---
1915-1984
OCCUPATION OF HAITI,
UNITED STATES
mulatto as236
after the period of
atof black politicians
can itself be partly
The triumph associated with the occupation
Aside from the
cendancy
during the occupation.
to the
tributed to forces generated the Occupation contributed
obvious impact of négritude, serious inroads into the privileged
which resulted in
for the Garde
social mobility
Blacks were recruited as soldiers Service Techposition of the elite. Service Technique. While the was an imand students for the successful in this respect, the Garde who were
nique proved less
for illiterate blacks,
avenue of social mobility and opportunity for promotion
portant
education
limited in scope
able to obtain secondary the first time education, however the nineteenin the Garde. For
to the population at large. Also, of nonelite
and purpose, was open
brigade created a progeny
conof the marine
"brown" middle class,
year presence the occupation, a new
has
mulattoes. Since
skilled workers, and shopkeepers, of the
sisting of civil servants,
exclusive position
in
the previously
to advances
emerged to challenge
similarly contributed
to the
elite." The American presence Haitian women had been subject functions;
the emancipation of women.
rights and limited social
and
Code, with few legal women took jobs as teachers
Napoleonic under the stress of the occupation,
political movements."
and became active in patriotic role in the development
secretaries
also played a significant
of the corps during
The occupation Corps. With the rapid expansion rose to top ranks,
of the Marine
veterans of Haitian service
World War II many became commandants.
lives of most
including three who
did not directly alter the in 1931 that
In general the occupation Adviser Sidney de la Rue reported of Haitian
Haitians. Financial
little effect on the mass
subwas having
usual wants through
the Depression
able to supply their
the decline
who were
injured by
peasants,
and were not grievously the occupation failed
sistence agriculture
In the same fashion
in the daily lives
of marginal cash crops." social and economic changes Herskovits, who
to work fundamental anthropologist Melville J. concerns the
of the masses. American
in 1934, noted that "as have passed
studied the Mirebalais Valley
seems to
life of this valley it [the occupation) 18
assessments by
inner
discernible effect"" The pessimistic that Haiti had made
without any
in the early 1930s
were borne out
officials of the occupation economic or political progress
little fundamental
In the same fashion
in the daily lives
of marginal cash crops." social and economic changes Herskovits, who
to work fundamental anthropologist Melville J. concerns the
of the masses. American
in 1934, noted that "as have passed
studied the Mirebalais Valley
seems to
life of this valley it [the occupation) 18
assessments by
inner
discernible effect"" The pessimistic that Haiti had made
without any
in the early 1930s
were borne out
officials of the occupation economic or political progress
little fundamental --- Page 267 ---
EPILOGUE
by subsequent developments. By the mid-1960s Haiti had the lowest
life expectancy, the lowest per capita calory intake, the lowest per
capita gross national product, the lowest literacy rate (10 percent),
and the lowest percentage of children in school of any LatinAmerican country; 16 the morbid specter of expending population
and inadequate food supply envisioned by the Occupation officials
was becoming a reality. --- Page 268 ---
BLANK PAGE --- Page 269 ---
Notes
Abbreviations used in the notes are listed
ranks are abbreviated
below. In addition,
thus, Colonel, United according to common United States military military
and Rear
States Marine Corps is abbreviated
usage:
Admiral, United States Navy is abbreviated
COL, USMC;
RADM, USN.
Beach MS
Edward L.
Beach, CAPT, USN, "Admiral
Caperton in Haiti," unpublished MS, Jan. 13,
1920, National Archives, Naval Records ColCR
lection, RC45, Box 850.
Cumberland MSS
U.S., Congressional Record (various volumes).
Reminiscences of Dr. William W. Cumberland, 1951, Oral History Research Office,
Daniels MSS
Columbia University.
Papers of Josephus Daniels, Library of ConForbes Commission
gress.
Papers
Records of the President's Commission for the
Study and Review of Conditions in the
FR
lic of Haiti, 1930, National Archives, RG220, RepubU.S., Department of State, Papers
to
the Foreign Relations of the United Relating
States
LC
(Washington, various years and volumes).
Lejeune MSS
Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
Papers of John A. Lejeune, Library of ConMARCORPS HQ Haiti Haiti gress. MSS, U.S.
MSS
Historical
Marine Corps Headquarters
MARCORPS MUS
U.S.
Section, Alexandria, Va,
NA
Marine Corps Museum, Quantico, Va.
NA, RG45
National Archives, Washington, D.C.
National Archives, Naval Records Collection,
NA, RG80
Record Group 45.
National Archives, General Records of the DeNA, RG127
partment of the Navy, Record Group 80.
National Archives, Records of the U.S. Marine
Corps, Record Group 127.
of ConMARCORPS HQ Haiti Haiti gress. MSS, U.S.
MSS
Historical
Marine Corps Headquarters
MARCORPS MUS
U.S.
Section, Alexandria, Va,
NA
Marine Corps Museum, Quantico, Va.
NA, RG45
National Archives, Washington, D.C.
National Archives, Naval Records Collection,
NA, RG80
Record Group 45.
National Archives, General Records of the DeNA, RG127
partment of the Navy, Record Group 80.
National Archives, Records of the U.S. Marine
Corps, Record Group 127. --- Page 270 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 3-18
New York Times (various dates).
NYT
Record Group (referring to the Record Groups
RG
in the National Archives).
Franklin D.
MSS
Papers of Franklin D. Roosevelt,
Roosevelt
Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, N.Y.
Decimal File, National ArState Department
SD
chives, Record Group 59.
and AdU.S. Senate, Inquiry into Occupation
Senate Hearings,
ministration of Haiti and Santo Domingo,
Before a Select Committee on Halti
Hearings
67th Cong, 1st and 2d
and Santo Domingo,
Sess., 1922. Francis White, National Archives,
White MSS
Papers of Records of the State Department,
General
Record Group 59.
CHAPTER 1
Williams, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy
1. William Appleman
Co., 1962, rev. ed.). Arno J. Mayer, Politics
(New York: Dell Publishing
Containment and Counterrecolution at
and Diplomacy of Peacemaking: York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967). N. Gordon
Versailles, 1918-1919 (New and World Politics (New York: Oxford Univ.
Levin, Jr., Woodrow Wilson
Press, 1968).
BRIG GEN, USA, before the Sen2. Testimony of Robert P. Hughes, quoted in Henry F. Graff (ed.),
ate Committee on the Philippines (1902), Insurrection (Boston: Little,
American Imperialism and the Philippine
Brown & Co., 1969), p. 65.
Intervention: The Military Occu8. Allan Reed Millett, The Politics State of Univ. Press, 1968), p. 7.
pation of Cuba, 1906-1909 (Ohio
and the Gospel of Effictency: The
4. See Samuel P. Hays, Conservation 1890-1920 (Cambridge: Harvard
Progressive Conservation Movement, The Triumph of Conservatism (New
Univ. Press, 1959); Gabriel Kolko, Haber, Eficiency and Uplift: SciYork: Free Press, 1963); and Samuel
1890-1920 (Chicago: Univ. of
entific Management in the Progressive Era,
Chicago Press, 1964).
Modernization in Italy: Traditional or
5. See Roland Sarti, "Fascist Historical Review, LXXV, No. 4 (April, 1970),
Revolutionary?" American
1029-45.
Waller, COL, USMC, to John A. Lejeune, COL,
6. Littleton W. T.
Container 4.
USMC, Oct. 13, 1915; Lejeune MSS,
1963); and Samuel
1890-1920 (Chicago: Univ. of
entific Management in the Progressive Era,
Chicago Press, 1964).
Modernization in Italy: Traditional or
5. See Roland Sarti, "Fascist Historical Review, LXXV, No. 4 (April, 1970),
Revolutionary?" American
1029-45.
Waller, COL, USMC, to John A. Lejeune, COL,
6. Littleton W. T.
Container 4.
USMC, Oct. 13, 1915; Lejeune MSS, --- Page 271 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 19-24
CHAPTER 2
discussion of Haiti before 1915 is based largely on
1. The following
cited when information is of
secondary sources which are not specifically
include C. L. R. James,
nature. These sources
a general or uncontroversial York: Vintage Books, 1963); James G. Leyburn,
The Black Jacobins (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1966); Rayford W.
The Haitian People (New
Republic (New York: Oxford Univ.
Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Relations of the United States with
Press, 1968), and The Diplomatic Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1941);
Haiti: 1776-1891 (Chapel Hill: and the United States; 1714-1938 (DurLudwell Lee Montague, Haiti
G. Munro, Intervention and Dollar
ham: Duke Univ. Press, 1940); Dana
Princeton Univ.
Diplomacy in the Caribbean; 1900-1921 (Princeton: The Story of Haiti (New
Press, 1964); H. P. Davis, Black Democracy: "Un Dominion intellectuel
York: Dial Press, 1928); Louis Morpeau, de PAmérique latine, 30 Année, VIII
français: Haiti (1789-1924)," Revue
"La Substitution de la prépon-
(1924), 332-41; and Leslie F. Manigat, française en Haiti au début du
dérance américaine a la prépondérance Revue d'histotre moderne et
XX siècle: la conjoncture de 1910-1911," 1967), 321-55. There never had
contemporaine XIV (October-December,
or literacy. The above
been a systematic census of Haitian population "The American Intervention in
estimates are taken from Carl Kelsey,
American Academy of
Haiti and the Dominican Republic," Annals of 109 ff.
Political and Social Science, C (March, 1922),
2. Davis, pp. 23-26. Montague, p. 5.
3. James, p. 50.
4. Leyburn, 18n.
society by J. S. Furnivall, quoted in
5. Generic definition of a plural Caribbean Race Relations (London:
H. Hoetink, The Two Variants of
Oxford Univ. Press, 1967), p. 91. Haitian People, see Jean Price-Mars,
6. For a critique of Leyburn's
de James G. Leyburn,"
"Classe ou casteP Etude sur "The Haitian People' d'Haiti XIII, No. 46
Revue de la Société d'Histoire et de Géographie
(July, 1942), 1-50.
"Le Rôle du
7. Jean Price-Mars quoted in O. Mennesson-Rigaud, (Paris) XVIIId'Haiti," Présence Africaine
Vaudou dans Tindépendance
XIX (February-May, 1958), 43-67.
pp. 98-97. George
8. Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, et de la famille au lendemain
Séjourné, "Etablissement de la propriété d'Historie et de Géographie
Revue de la Société
de T'indépendance,"
1935), 9-32.
d'Haiti VI, No. 17 (January,
) XVIIId'Haiti," Présence Africaine
Vaudou dans Tindépendance
XIX (February-May, 1958), 43-67.
pp. 98-97. George
8. Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, et de la famille au lendemain
Séjourné, "Etablissement de la propriété d'Historie et de Géographie
Revue de la Société
de T'indépendance,"
1935), 9-32.
d'Haiti VI, No. 17 (January, --- Page 272 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 24-36
in a Haitian Valley (New York: Octagon
9. Melville J. Herskovits, Life W. Mintz, "Peasant Markets," ScienBooks, 1964), chaps. iv, xiii. Sidney 1960), 112f.
tific American, CCIII, No. 2 (August,
141-51, for a historio10. See Logan, Diplomatic Relations . of 2 pp. various factors leading to
graphic discussion of the relative importance
the French decision to sell Louisiana.
11. Ibid., pp. 47, 53.
submitted to U.S. Senate, Select
12. Navy Department Memorandum Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 63.
Committee on Haiti and Santo Domingo; Relations . . 9 p. 399.
13. Adee quoted in Logan, Diplomatic Under American Control: 1915-1930
14. Arthur C. Millspaugh, Haiti
18n.
(Boston: World Peace Foundation, 1931), the Financial Adoiser-Ceneral
15. Republic of Haiti, Annual Report of
Annual Report, Financial
Receiver, 1926, p. 32. Referred to hereafter as
Adviser (various years).
Santo Domingo and Haitl; A Cruise
16. Samuel Guy Inman, Through
in Latin AmerYork: Committee on Cooperation
with the Marines (New
ica, 1919?), p. 73.
française (Port-au-Prince, 1925),
17. Alfred Nemours, Ma campagne Histoire littéraire de TAmérique
p. 261, quoted in Auguste Viatte, Presses universitaires de France,
française; des origines a 1950 (Paris:
1954), p. 429. My translation. H. Furniss to Knox, Apr. 30, 1912.
18. Quoted in SD 838.42/-, Plans for Employment of Naval Forces
19. "D' Confidential Tentative
(ca. July, 1914); NA, RG45,
Stationed in Haitien Ports-Fort-auPdacs"
WA-7, Box 631.
Stabler to w.J. Bryan, May 18, 1914. Roger
20. SD 838.00/1667, J. H. National City Bank, estimated that 90%
L. Farnham, vice-president controlled of by Germans on the eve of American
of Haitian business was
110.
intervention; Senate Hearings, 1922, p.
XIV, 821-55.
Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine,
21. Manigat,
326.
22. Davis, p. 151. Munro, p. L. Ton Evans; Senate Hearings, 1922,
23. Testimony of the Reverend
with a German banker who
p. 156. Evans told of a 1911 conversation
financed Haitian revolutions from Berlin. 35%. SD 838.51/283, Furniss to
24. Rates of interest were as high as Stabler to Bryan, May 18, 1914.
Knox, Sept. 26, 1911; also 838.00/1667,
25. Montague, p. 163.
Investments of United States Capital
26. Ibid., p. 172. Max Winkler, Peace Foundation Pamphlets, XI, No.
in Latin America (Boston: World
6, 1928), 274.
1911 conversation
financed Haitian revolutions from Berlin. 35%. SD 838.51/283, Furniss to
24. Rates of interest were as high as Stabler to Bryan, May 18, 1914.
Knox, Sept. 26, 1911; also 838.00/1667,
25. Montague, p. 163.
Investments of United States Capital
26. Ibid., p. 172. Max Winkler, Peace Foundation Pamphlets, XI, No.
in Latin America (Boston: World
6, 1928), 274. --- Page 273 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 36-40
27. Montague, p. 199.
28. Ibid.
29. Millspaugh, p. 21.
Nationale des Chemins de Fer
30. Charles M. DuPuy, "La Compagnie Internationale des Hommes d'Affatres
d'Haiti," La Revue de TAssociation No. 4 (October-November, 1923),
d'Haiti (Port-au-Prince), lere Année,
74-78.
& Co. to Huntington Wilson, Aug. 12, 1910.
31. SD 838.51/81, Speyer
vice-president of National City
32. Testimony of Roger L. Farnham,
of Haiti; Senate Hearings,
Bank and president of the National Railway
1922, pp. 106-7.
stockholders submitted to the department by
33. SD 838.77/899, list of
Mar. 30, 1931.
Farnham in 1924, attached to W. R. Scott Memorandum,
34. Munro, p. 332.
américaine a la préponde35. "La Substitution de la préponderance siècle: la
de 1910en Haiti au début du XXe
conjoncture
rance française
moderne et contemporaine XIV (October-Decem1911," Revue d'histoire
ber, 1967), 321-55.
& Co. to Huntington Wilson, Aug. 12, 1910.
36. SD 838.51/81, Speyer
National City Bank, to Knox,
SD 838.51/72, M. E. Ailes, representing to
Wilson, July
4, 1910. Also SD 838.51/74, H. M. Hoyt Huntington
June
6, 1910.
Nationale de la République d'Haiti," sub37. Memorandum "Banque
National City Bank on Feb. 12,
mitted to the Forbes Commission by
1980; Forbes Commission Papers, Box 1.
Banque Contract.
38. See SD 838.00/1377 for a copy of the 1910 1910. For a listing of the
39. SD 838.51/198, Hoyt to Knox, Oct. A. 14, A. Adee to American Legadepartment's objections, see 838.51/119a,
tion, Port-au-Prince, Oct. 12, 1910.
of the Ameragreement signed by representatives
40. SD 838.51/204,
Bank of Haiti, addressed to the Secretary
ican participants in the National and Knox to American participants, Jan.
of State (Knox), Jan. 10, 1910,
11, 1911.
to Knox, May 1, 1911. Philip W.
41. SD 838.51/240, F. A. Vanderlip
Papers, Columbia
to Vanderlip, Nov. 1, 1910; Frank A. Vanderlip
Henry
Univ. Library.
Walter T. Rosen, on behalf of American parti42. See SD 838.51/218,
W. Wickersham, asking him to prod
cipants, to Attorney General George of the contract, Dec. 18, 1910.
the State Department for approval
1, 1911.
43. SD 838.51/240, Vanderlip to Knox, May
. SD 838.51/240, F. A. Vanderlip
Papers, Columbia
to Vanderlip, Nov. 1, 1910; Frank A. Vanderlip
Henry
Univ. Library.
Walter T. Rosen, on behalf of American parti42. See SD 838.51/218,
W. Wickersham, asking him to prod
cipants, to Attorney General George of the contract, Dec. 18, 1910.
the State Department for approval
1, 1911.
43. SD 838.51/240, Vanderlip to Knox, May --- Page 274 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 41-48
of Economic and Social Affairs, For44. United Nations, Department Sales No.: 1954, II.G.4 (1954), 6.
eign Capital in Latin America, United States Capital in Latin America,
45. Winkler, Investments of
p. 275.
CHAPTER 3
Financial Adviser-General Re1. Testimony of John A. Mcllhenny,
1922, p. 1225.
ceiver of the Republic of Haiti; Senate Hearings,
Feb. 10, 1932.
State Department Press Release,
2. SD 838.51/2393,
of Foreign Bondholders, Forty-Second
3. Council of the Corporation Wertheimer, Lea & Co., 1916?), pp.
Annual Report, 1915 (London:
375-76.
3, 1905, quoted in Philip C. Jessup,
4. Root to H. M. Flagler, Jan. Mead & Co., 1938), I, 471.
Elihu Root (New York: Dodd,
syndrome led to American
5. For a description of how the loan-default Melvin M. Knight, The
intervention in the Dominican Republic, York: see Vanguard Press, 1928), pp.
Americans in Santo Domingo (New
v-xi. 6. Knox speech, Apr. 3, 1912; FR, 1912, p. 545. Wilson, ed. Albert Shaw,
7. The Messages and Papers of Woodrow 1924), p. 401.
Vol. I (New York: Review of Reviews Corp.,
The Imperialspeech, 1900, quoted in Louis L. Snyder (ed.),
8. Bryan
D. Van Nostrand Co., 1962), p. 401.
ism Reader (Princeton:
The New Freedom (Princeton: Princeton
9. Arthur S. Link, Wilson,
Univ. Press, 1956), p. 329.
in honor of Uruguayan delegation
10. Bryan speech at banquet given
May 27, 1915, enclosed in
to the Pan-American Financial Conference, 1915; Frank A. Vanderlip Papers,
Bryan letter to Vanderlip, May 27,
Columbia Univ.
The Struggle for Neutrality: 1914-1915
11. Arthur S. Link, Wilson,
498.
(Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1960), p.
in Haiti," Current
12. John H. Allen, "An Inside View of Revolutions
History, XXXII (May, 1930), 325-29. Neutrality, p. 499. Professor Link
13. Link, Wilson, The Struggle for it was a case of the blind leading
says, "In Caribbean policy, therefore,
the blind."
Receiver General of Customs, Dominican
14. Bryan to Walter W. Vick, in NYT, Jan. 15, 1915, p. 6.
Republic, Aug. 20, 1913, quoted
Mar. 26, 1915; also
15. SD 838.00/1151a, Bryan to A. Bailly-Blanchard, Mar. 27, 1915. Also Bryan to
838.00/1152, Bailly-Blanchard to Bryan,
Wilson, Apr. 3, 1915; NA, Bryan-Wilson Correspondence.
General of Customs, Dominican
14. Bryan to Walter W. Vick, in NYT, Jan. 15, 1915, p. 6.
Republic, Aug. 20, 1913, quoted
Mar. 26, 1915; also
15. SD 838.00/1151a, Bryan to A. Bailly-Blanchard, Mar. 27, 1915. Also Bryan to
838.00/1152, Bailly-Blanchard to Bryan,
Wilson, Apr. 3, 1915; NA, Bryan-Wilson Correspondence. --- Page 275 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 48-52
for Neutrality, p. 523. Also Munro,
16. Link, Wilson, The Struggle
332, 338.
Intervention and Dollar Diplomacy, pp.
Correspondence.
17. Bryan to Wilson, July 1, 1914; NA, Bryan-Wilson la
d'Haiti," sub-
"Banque Nationale de République
18. Memorandum
by National City Bank, Feb. 12, 1930;
mitted to the Forbes Commission
Forbes Commission Papers, Box 1. memorandum "The Bank," unsigned,
19. Office of Naval Intelligence
Written by a Naval Officer,"
undated, ca. 1915, annotated "Confidential, Officer, U.S.S. Connecticut,
by E. H. Durell, CAPT, USN, Commanding 1915; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 631.
in Haitian waters August-September, by the bankers, see SD 838.51/
Also, for assurances given the department
in the National Bank of
204, agreement signed by American participants
10, 1911.
addressed to the Secretary of State (Knox), Jan.
Haiti,
Furniss to Bryan, July 24, 1913. Also 838.51/290,
20. SD 838.77/95,
Furniss to Knox, Nov. 7, 1911.
18, 1911. Also Office of Naval
21. SD 838.51/266, Furniss to Knox, Aug. RG45, WA-7, Box 631.
Intelligence memorandum "The Bank"; NA,
1911. Also 838.51/298,
Furniss to Knox, Nov. 9,
22. SD 838.51/291,
J. A. Doyle to HuntingDivision of Latin American Affairs memorandum,
ton Wilson, Dec. 28, 1911.
Policy and Economic Develop23. O. Ernest Moore, "Monetary-Fiscal No. 3 (1954), 230-53. The exchange
ment in Haiti," Public Finance, IX, the dollar in 1909 to 3.5 gourdes to
rate of the gourde rose from 5.63 to
the dollar in 1912.
memorandum "The Bank"; NA, RG45,
24. Office of Naval Intelligence
"The Political History of the OccuWA-7, Box 631. Also Paul H. Douglas,
Haiti (New York:
in Emily G. Balch and others, Occupied
pation,"
Co., 1927), pp. 15-36.
Writers Publishing
Nationale; son histoire-ses pro25. Joseph Chatelain, La Banque
de l'indépenCollection du Tricinquantenaire
blèmes (Port-au-Prince:
Solon Menos, Haitian minisdance d'Haiti, 1954), p. 105. SD 838.516/50, 1915. The search was made after
ter to Washington, to Bryan, Jan. the 11, vaults and taken to New York on
$500,000 had been removed from
the U.S.S. Machias.
to Bryan, Aug. 31, 1914.
26. SD 838.51/350, Bailly-Blanchard 1914; FR, 1914, pp. 345-46.
27. M. R. Smith to Bryan, June 9,
1914; ibid., pp. 373-75.
to Bryan, Dec. 24,
28. Bailly-Blanchard
memorandum to Bryan, June 23, 1914.
29. SD 838.51/494, unsigned memorandum "The Bank"; NA, RG45,
30. Office of Naval Intelligence
WA-7, Box 631.
.
26. SD 838.51/350, Bailly-Blanchard 1914; FR, 1914, pp. 345-46.
27. M. R. Smith to Bryan, June 9,
1914; ibid., pp. 373-75.
to Bryan, Dec. 24,
28. Bailly-Blanchard
memorandum to Bryan, June 23, 1914.
29. SD 838.51/494, unsigned memorandum "The Bank"; NA, RG45,
30. Office of Naval Intelligence
WA-7, Box 631. --- Page 276 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 52-56
in
to American Interests
"Confidential Memorandum in Respect
at the State Depart31.
Bank of Haiti," dictated by Farnham Mar. 27, 1915; NA,
the National
enclosed in Bryan to Wilson,
ment, Mar. 27, 1915,
Bryan-Wilson Correspondence.
to American
32. Munro, p. 332.
Memorandum in Respect
"Confidential
Correspond33. Farnham, National Bank of Hait'"; NA, Bryan-Wilson the National Railroad
Interests in the
Memorandum Concerning
Mar. 27, 1915,
ence. Also "Confidential Farnham at the State Department,
Correof Haiti," dictated by Wilson, Mar. 27, 1915; NA, Bryan-Wilson 1914; 838.00/
enclosed in Bryan to
Farnham to Bryan, Feb. 3, to Bryan,
spondence. Also SD 838.00/801, 1914; 838.00/938, Farnham
Farnham to Bryan, Feb. 5,
809,
1914.
and the Dominican Republic
June 19,
investments in Cuba, Haiti,
"German Investments
34. German
$1 million. J. Fred Rippy,
1948), 63-73.
in 1918 amounted to only
XXI, No. 2 (April,
Latin America," * Journal of Business,
13, 1914.
in
Stabler to Bryan, May
to American
35. SD 838.00/1667,
Memorandum in Respect Memorandum
36. Farnham, "Confidential Bank of Haiti," and "Confdential
CorreInterests in the National Railroad of Haiti"; NA, Bryan-Wilson
Concerning the National
Correspondspondence.
Mar. 27, 1915; NA, Bryan-Wilson
37. Bryan to Wilson,
1922, p. 106.
Senate Hearings,
ence. Ibid. Also testimony of Farnham,
Correspondence
38.
Apr. 3, 1915; NA, Bryan-Wison
Corre39. Bryan to Wilson,
Mar. 31, 1915; NA, Bryan-Wilson
40. Ibid. Wilson to Bryan,
potential as seen by
spondence.
assessment of Haiti's economic A. MacCorkle, The
41. For a sanguine of West Virginia, see William of Haiti (New York:
a former governor in Its Relation to the Republic
Monroe Doctrine Co., 1915), pp. 25-26. 1914; FR, 1914, pp. 370-71.
Neale Publishing
Dec. 19,
to
Bally-Blanchard.
Correspondence.
42. Bryan Wilson, Apr. 3, 1915; NA, Bryan-Wilson
43. Bryan to
June 23, 1913;
44. Ibid.
June 20, 1913, and Wilson to Bryan, June 14, 1913,
45. Bryan to Wilson, Correspondence. Also Bryan to Wilson, and Letters: 1915NA, Bryan-Wilson Stannard Baker, Woodrow Wilson, Life p. 87.
quoted in Ray
Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1937), 1914.
1917, VI (Garden City: Stabler memorandum, May 14, Bryan-Wilson Corre46. SD 838.00/1668, to Wilson, Apr. 3, 1915; NA,
47. Ibid. Also Bryan
spondence.
14, 1913,
45. Bryan to Wilson, Correspondence. Also Bryan to Wilson, and Letters: 1915NA, Bryan-Wilson Stannard Baker, Woodrow Wilson, Life p. 87.
quoted in Ray
Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1937), 1914.
1917, VI (Garden City: Stabler memorandum, May 14, Bryan-Wilson Corre46. SD 838.00/1668, to Wilson, Apr. 3, 1915; NA,
47. Ibid. Also Bryan
spondence. --- Page 277 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 57-62
48. For a discussion of relative
eve of World War I, see Montague, naval power in the Caribbean on the
83, 210-11.
Haiti and the United States, pp. 18149. Robert Lansing, "Drama of the
July 19, 1931, Pt. V, p. 4.
Virgin Islands Purchase," NYT,
50. SD 838.00/1275A,
51. Lansing
Lansing to Wilson, Aug. 2, 1915.
Memoirs of Robert memorandum, July 11, 1915, in Robert Lansing, War
19-21. Also
Lansing (New York: Bobbs-Merrill
Logan, Haiti and the Dominican
Co., 1935), pp.
52. Lansing to Senator Medill
Republic, p. 125.
Cong., 2d Sess., 1922, LXII, Pt. 6, 6485-88. McCormick, May 4, 1922; CR, 67th
53. SD 838.00/2006, Francis White to C.
54. Lansing, War Memoirs, p. 310.
E. Hughes, Apr. 17, 1922.
55. Lansing memorandum "Present Nature and
Doctrine and Its Need of
Extent of the Monroe
FR: The Lansing Papers, 1914-1920, Restatement," June 11 and Nov. 24, 1915;
56. Ibid.
II, 460-70.
57. Wilson to Lansing, Nov. 29, 1915;
58. Daniels to William Allen
ibid., p. 470.
59. For a detailed discussion White, Feb. 18, 1930; Daniels MSS.
up to armed
of State Department activities
intervention, see Munro,
leading
60. Farnham, "Confidential
Pp. 333-51.
Interests in the National Bank of Memorandum in Respect to American
ence,
Haiti"; NA, Bryan-Wilson Correspond61. Banque Nationale de Ia République d'Haiti
FR, 1914, p. 365. Also Farnham
to Bryan, Dec. 8, 1914;
62. Chatelain, La Banque Nationale, testimony, Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 122.
63. SD 838.00/793,
pp. 105-6.
64. Bryan to
Farnham to Bryan, Jan. 31, 1914.
1914; LC, Wilson Wilson, Mar. 24, 1914, and Wilson to Bryan, Mar.
Papers,
26,
65. Munro, p. 337, Also SD 838.00/947a,
July 10, 1914. 838.00/948,
Bryan to L. W. Livingston,
66. Bryan to Bailly-Blanchard, Livingston to Bryan, July 12, 1914.
67,
July 2, 1914; FR, 1914,
Bailly-Blanchard to Bryan, Dec.
pp. 347-50.
68. Bailly-Blanchard to
4, 1914; tbid., p. 363.
Feb. 28, 1914; ibid., 340. Bryan, Dec. 2, 1914; ibid. Also Smith to
p.
Bryan,
69. Bryan to Bailly-Blanchard, Nov.
70. SD 838.00/1197, William
12, 1914; ibid., p. 359.
71. SD 838.51/354, E. V. Haniel Phillips memorandum, June 22, 1915.
1914.
von Haimhausen to Phillips, July 25,
72. SD 838.00/1352, Phillips memorandum of
secretary of the French Embassy in
visit of de Laboulaye,
Washington, July 29, 1915.
p.
Bryan,
69. Bryan to Bailly-Blanchard, Nov.
70. SD 838.00/1197, William
12, 1914; ibid., p. 359.
71. SD 838.51/354, E. V. Haniel Phillips memorandum, June 22, 1915.
1914.
von Haimhausen to Phillips, July 25,
72. SD 838.00/1352, Phillips memorandum of
secretary of the French Embassy in
visit of de Laboulaye,
Washington, July 29, 1915. --- Page 278 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 62-67
Correspondence.
73. Bryan to Wilson, Apr. 3, 1915; NA, Bryan-Wilson
74. Munro, pp. 341-42.
RADM, USN, governor of Virgin Islands,
75. Lansing to J. H. Oliver,
quoted in Logan, Haiti and
Jan. 30, 1918; LC, Papers of Robert Lansing,
the Dominican Republic, p. 126. 1915; No. 26. France Aff. Etr. Haiti
76. Girard to Delcassé, Apr. 17,
"La substitution de
Pol. Etr. II (1909-18), 94-102, quoted in Manigat, française . e 9 > 323.
américaine a la prépondérance
la prépondérance
(My translation.)
memorandum "Notes and Recommenda77. SD 838.00/1391, Situation Phillips in Haiti," ca. Aug, 1915.
tions on the Political
CHAPTER 4
Daniels to U.S.S. Connecticut, July 21, 1914; NA, RG45,
1. Radiogram
WA-7, Box 631.
Reference No. 5-D: Republic of Haiti," Nov.
2. "War Portfolio No. 1,
9, 1914; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 636.
of Naval Forces Stationed in
3. "Tentative Plans for Employment
1914; NA, RG45, WA-7,
undated, ca. July,
Haitien Ports-Port-au-Princs"
Box 633.
Register No. 4801A, "Haiti and Santo
4. Office of Naval Intelligence October to December, 1914; NA, RG45,
Domingo-Plan of Occupation,
WA-7, Box 633.
Stabler to Lansing, Aug. 5, 1915.
5. SD 838.00/1426,
of these events by the secretary of the
6. For an eyewitness account Jr., to Lansing, Jan. 12, 1916; FR, 1916,
U.S. legation, see R. B. Davis,
after the massacre and saw Sam's
pp. 310-20. Davis visited the prison
of Sam, see also Jean
in the streets. For a defense
body being paraded
Vilbrun Guillaume-Sam, ce méconnu (PortPrice-Mars, Ebauches : .
au-Prince: Imp. de TEtat, 1961). 28, 1915; FR, 1915, p. 475.
7. Lansing to Daniels, July
américaine dHaiti: ses conséquences
8. Dantès Bellegarde, L'occupation
Imp. Chéraquit, 1929), p. 5.
morales et économique (Port-au-Prince: 1929, LXXII, Pt. 1, 910.
9. CR, 71st Cong, 2d Sess., to Wilson, Aug. 3, 1915.
10. SD 838.00/1275B, Lansing 3. Also SD 838.00/1226, R. B. Davis to
11. NYT, Aug. 14, 1915, p.
Lansing, July 30, 1915.
from July 28 to Aug, 4, 1915, W. B. Caperton,
12. Report of Operations
July 18, 1916; NA,
RADM, USN, to Secretary of the Navy (Operations),
RG45, WA-7, Box 633.
13. Beach MS.
.
10. SD 838.00/1275B, Lansing 3. Also SD 838.00/1226, R. B. Davis to
11. NYT, Aug. 14, 1915, p.
Lansing, July 30, 1915.
from July 28 to Aug, 4, 1915, W. B. Caperton,
12. Report of Operations
July 18, 1916; NA,
RADM, USN, to Secretary of the Navy (Operations),
RG45, WA-7, Box 633.
13. Beach MS. --- Page 279 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 68-71
The White King of La Gonave
14. Faustin Wirkus and Taney Dudley, Co., 1931), p. 17. Wirkus, a private
(New York: Garden City the Publishing time of the 1915 landings, was subsequently
in the Marine Corps at
became the white king of the
promoted to sergeant and, in this capacity,
island of La Gonave in Port-au-Prince Bay.
15. Ibid., pp. 28-29.
of the Navy and Commander in Chief, Aug.
16. Caperton to Secretary
19, 1915; Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 335. Daniels MSS, Container No. 12,
17. Daniels to Wilson, Aug. 2, 1915;
Correspondence Daniels to Wilson, 1911-23.
Haiti,
Account of the Red Cross Relief Work in Port-au-Prince,
18. "An
30, 1916, by P. A. Surgeon H. A. May, USN;
January to April, 1916," Apr.
NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 633. Marine Tells It to You (New York: J. H.
19. Frederick M. Wise, A
Sears & Co., 1929), p. 134.
SC, USN), "Some Haitian Recollec20. Fred E. McMillen (CAPT,
LXII, No. 398 (April, 1936),
tions," U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings,
522-36.
21. Wise, p. 135.
to Wilson, Aug. 3, 1915. SD 838.00/1418,
22. SD 838.00/1275B, Lansing
Wilson to Lansing, Aug, 4, 1915. Allen White, Feb. 18, 1930; Daniels MSS.
23. See Daniels to William
dictated instructions that were
Daniels states that Wilson personally Admiral Caperton on Aug. 7, 1915,
cabled by the Navy Department to inform the Haitians that the United
in which Caperton was ordered to Haiti only until a firm and stable
States intended to retain troops in
government was established. 9, 1915; FR: The Lansing Papers, 191424. Lansing to Wilson, Aug,
1920, II, 524.
in Haiti," by Edward L. Beach, CAPT,
25. See "Admiral Caperton
submitted to the Historical Section,
USN, referred to herein as Beach MS, 1920, but refused publication by
Office of Naval Intelligence on Jan. 13,
matters which it was not
"as containing political
the Navy Department
chief of staff and undertook
desirable to publish." Beach was Caperton's ashore during the months followall negotiations with Haitian politicians constant communication with "X,"
ing the intervention. Beach was in
J. N. Leger, whose advice was
Haitian politician, probably
a prominent
Reference to "X"s advice on preventing
highly valued by the Americans.
undated memorandum in
the election of Bobo is found in a separate, Box 632. See also Caperton to
Beach's handwriting; NA, RG45, WA-7,
Daniels, Aug. 2, 1915; FR, 1915, pp. 477-78.
ashore during the months followall negotiations with Haitian politicians constant communication with "X,"
ing the intervention. Beach was in
J. N. Leger, whose advice was
Haitian politician, probably
a prominent
Reference to "X"s advice on preventing
highly valued by the Americans.
undated memorandum in
the election of Bobo is found in a separate, Box 632. See also Caperton to
Beach's handwriting; NA, RG45, WA-7,
Daniels, Aug. 2, 1915; FR, 1915, pp. 477-78. --- Page 280 ---
26. Beach MS, pp. 98,
NOTES TO PAGES 71-75
27. Ibid., p. 129, After 140-44.
by the Americans, Bobo having been barred from the
as a medical
went to Cuba, where he Haitian
G.
ence of the Seventh missionary; A. Roberts, president worked for presidency four years
SD 838.51/1105. Day Adventists, to President of the Jamaica Confer28. SD 838.00/1182,
Harding, June 6, 1921,
29. NYT, July 29, 1915, Livingston to Bryan, May 1, 1915.
Bryan, Apr. 6, 1915,
p. 4, SD 838.0/1156,
30. Caperton to Daniels,
Bail-Blanchard to
RG45, WA-7, Box 636. Also Report SD of Operations,
3, 1915.
838.00/1275B, Aug. 13-19, 1915; NA,
31. Beach MS,
Lansing to Wilson, Aug.
32. Undated pp. 122, 133-34.
NA, RG45, WA-7, memorandum Box
in Beach
33. Beach
632.
handwriting, ca. Aug. 15, 1915;
Box 635. The memorandum, United
undated, ca, Aug. 15,
Mole at this point, States was no longer interested 1915; NA, RG45, WA-7,
34. See
in acquiring the
Vanderlip "Memorandum re. Haitien
president of Papers, National Columbia Univ., Haiti Situation," file. At this August, 1915; Frank A.
and the National
City Bank, which controlled time Vanderlip was
85. Beach
Railway in Haiti,
the Banque Nationale
36. Beach memorandum, conference Aug. 10, 1915; NA,
37. Ibid.
with Bobo, Aug. 8, 1915, RC45, ibid. WA-7, Box 635,
38. Daniels to Caperton,
Daniels to William Allen Aug. 10, 1915; Senate
39. Lansing to Wilson, White, Feb. 18, 1930; Daniels Hearings, MSS. 1922, p. 315.
1920, II, 526.
Aug. 13, 1915; FR: The
40. Josephus Daniels,
Lansing Papers, 1914CCIII, No. 2 (July 12, "The Problem of Haiti,"
1933; Roosevelt MSS, 1930), 32 ff. Daniels to F. Saturday D.
Evening Post,
41, Daniels to W. A. Container OF237.
Roosevelt, July 15,
42. Beach memorandum, White, Feb. 18, 1930; Daniels MSS,
interview with Harry R. Aug, 1915; NA, RG45, WA-7, Container Box
642.
Sugar Co. from 1916 to 1918, Long, comptroller of the
635. Also
43. Censorship
Apr. 22, 1967.
Haitian-American
p. 70.
Promulgation of Sept, 3, 1915; Senate
44. Davis to Lansing,
Hearings, 1922,
45. Lansing to Wilson, Sept, 3, 1915; FR, 1915, p. 442,
1920, II, 528-27,
Aug. 13, 1915; FR: The
Lansing to Davis, Aug. 12, 1915; Lansing Papers, 1914
FR, 1915, pp. 431-33.
, 1967.
Haitian-American
p. 70.
Promulgation of Sept, 3, 1915; Senate
44. Davis to Lansing,
Hearings, 1922,
45. Lansing to Wilson, Sept, 3, 1915; FR, 1915, p. 442,
1920, II, 528-27,
Aug. 13, 1915; FR: The
Lansing to Davis, Aug. 12, 1915; Lansing Papers, 1914
FR, 1915, pp. 431-33. --- Page 281 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 76-79
Hearto E. H. Durell, CAPT, USN, Aug. 25, 1915; Senate
46. Caperton
the commander of United States forces
ings, 1922, pp. 341-43. Durell was
at Cap Haîtien.
47. Beach MS, p. 184.
Dartiguenave et les américains (Port48. B. Danache, Le Président 46-47. Danache was Dartiguenave's
au-Prince: Imp. de lEtat, 1950), pp.
Senate Hearings, 1922,
cabinet secretary. See also Caperton testimony,
p. 397.
Sept. 29, 1915; FR, 1915, pp. 524-25.
49. R. B. Davis to Lansing,
Hearings, 1922, p. 401. Caperton to
50. Caperton testimony, Senate for Nov. 18, 1915, dated Nov. 20, 1915; NA,
Daniels, Report of Operations
RG45, WA-7, Box 637.
F. L. Polk to Davis, Sept. 27 and Oct. 2,
51. Acting Secretary of State
1915; FR, 1915, pp. 524-26. Dec. 31, 1915; Senate Hearings, 1922, pp.
52. Daniels to Caperton,
405-7.
Lansing to American Legation, Port-au-Prince,
53. SD 838.51/408a,
Aug. 18, 1915.
Senate Hearings, 1922, pp. 405-7.
54. Caperton testimony,
16, 1915, is reprinted in FR, 1916, pp.
55. The treaty, signed Sept.
328-32.
"Intervention in Haiti," Division of Latin Amer56. SD 838.00/2484, unsigned, Feb. 11, 1927.
ican Affairs memorandum,
57. Danache, p. 45.
Operations, June 3, 1916; NA, RG45,
58. Beach to Chief of Naval
WA-7, Box 632.
59. NYT, Oct. 6, 1920, p. 2.
Headquarters Naval Landing
60. "Order No. 1" of Aug. 10, 1915, 634.
Force, Cap Haitien; NA, RG45, WA-7, with Box A. T. Ruan, May 8, 1921, Con61. Conversation of H. F. Bryan Service Squadron (H. F. Bryan)
fdential Report, Commander Special 10, 1921; NA, RG80, Box 135, File
to Chief of Naval Operations, May
No. 238-8.
COL, USMC, May 15 and July 1, 1916;
62. Waller to John A. Lejeune,
Lejeune MSS, Container 4.
MARCORPS HQ Haiti MSS, Box
63. Waller to Butler, July 7, 1916; Marines' Role in the U.S. Occupation
25, quoted in John C. Chapin, "The M.A. thesis, George Washington Univ.
of Haiti: 1915-1922," unpublished
(1967), p. 44.
Aug. 26 and Oct. 13, 1915; Lejeune MSS, Con64. Waller to Lejeune,
tainer 4.
to John A. Lejeune,
Lejeune MSS, Container 4.
MARCORPS HQ Haiti MSS, Box
63. Waller to Butler, July 7, 1916; Marines' Role in the U.S. Occupation
25, quoted in John C. Chapin, "The M.A. thesis, George Washington Univ.
of Haiti: 1915-1922," unpublished
(1967), p. 44.
Aug. 26 and Oct. 13, 1915; Lejeune MSS, Con64. Waller to Lejeune,
tainer 4. --- Page 282 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 79-87
18 and 26, 1915, and July 1, 1916; ibid.
65. Waller to Lejeune, Aug.
66. Danache, pp. 53-54. 1, 1916; Lejeune MSS, Container 4.
67. Waller to Lejeune, July
July 15, 1916; Smedley Darlington
68. Butler to Thomas S. Butler,
Butler Papers, MARCORPS BRIG MUS. GEN, USMC; Senate Hearings, 1922,
69. Testimony of Butler,
p. 517.
13, 1916; Lejeune MSS, Container 4.
70. Butler to Lejeune, July
1916; ibid. Waller to H. S. Knapp,
71. Butler to Lejeune, Aug. 18,
of Santo Domingo and Military
RADM, USN, U.S. Military Governor Haiti, June 23, 1917; NA, RG45, WA-7,
Representative of the U.S. in
Box 632.
162-63.
72. Cumberland MSS, pp.
CHAPTER 5
memorandum fragment by W. B. Caperton, RADM, USN,
1. Undated NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 635.
ca. Aug. 1915;
Caperton to Secretary of the Navy (Oper2. Report for Nov. 20, 1915,
Intelligence Register No. 4326E;
ations), Dec. 7, 1915, Office of Naval
NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 634. to E. H. Durell, CAPT, USN, Sept. 28,
3. Caperton personal letter
1915; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 631.
Nov. 20, 1915; FR, 1915, pp. 486,
4, Daniels to Caperton, Sept. 5 and
1915; Senate Hearings, 1922,
493. Also Daniels to Caperton, Nov. 19,
p. 398.
399, 451. For the Butler version of the
5. Senate Hearings, 1922, pp. Thomas, Old Gimlet Eye: The Adattack on Fort Rivière, see Lowell
to Lowell Thomas (New York:
ventures of Smedley D. Butler as Told
Farrar & Rinehart, 1933), pp. 201-8. USMC, quoted in unidentified news6. Chandler Campbell, LT COL, York Public Library, Schomburg
paper clipping, Apr. 29, 1931; Vol. New III. See also NYT, Apr. 26, 1931, p. 26.
Collection, Scrapbook "Haiti,"
7. Thomas, Old Gimlet Eye, p. 195. letter to E. H. Durell, CAPT,
8. Eli K. Cole, COL, USMC, personal WA-7, Box 633.
USN, Oct. 27, 1915; NA, RG45,
1922, p. 514.
9. Butler testimony, Senate Hearings, d'Haiti: 1915-1934 (Annapolis: U.S.
10. James H. McCrocklin, Garde 187. This work is largely taken from
Naval Institute, 1956), pp. 92, 145,
Franklin A. Hart, MAJ, USMC,
a 1934 official Marine Corps history MSS. by See NYT, Mar. 10, 1969, p. 34.
located in MARCORPS HQ Haiti
1915; NA, RG45,
1922, p. 514.
9. Butler testimony, Senate Hearings, d'Haiti: 1915-1934 (Annapolis: U.S.
10. James H. McCrocklin, Garde 187. This work is largely taken from
Naval Institute, 1956), pp. 92, 145,
Franklin A. Hart, MAJ, USMC,
a 1934 official Marine Corps history MSS. by See NYT, Mar. 10, 1969, p. 34.
located in MARCORPS HQ Haiti --- Page 283 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 87-92
5 Journal
Maurice De Young, "Class Parameters in Haitian Society,"
11. Inter-American Studies, I (1959), 449-58.
NA,
of
LT COL, USMC to Lansing, Dec. 12, 1918;
12. A. S. Williams,
Office, General CorrespondRG127, Records of Adjutant and Inspector's
ence 1913-1932, Box 81.
GEN, USMC, to Francis White,
18. SD 838.105/251, Neville, MAJ
Aug. 10, 1922.
to Secretary of the Navy, Dec. 2, 1918;
14. Commandant Marine Corps
Office, General Correspondence
NA, RG127, Adjutant and Inspector's
L913-32, File No. 1375-20.
Daniels: 1913Daniels, The Cabinet Diaries of Josephus
15. Josephus
Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1963),
1921, ed. E. David Cronon (Lincoln:
p. 332.
July 13, 1916; Lejeune MSS, Container 4.
16. Butler to Lejeune, Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 516.
17. Butler testimony,
CXXXVI, No. 3524 (Jan. 18, 1933),
18. Butler quoted in the Nation,
The Memoirs of General A. A.
49. A. A. Vandegrift, Once a Marine: (New York: W. W. Norton & Co.,
Vandegrift, as told to Robert B. Asprey commandant of the Marine Corps
1964), p. 49. General Vandegrift, a
adjutant in Haiti.
during World War II, served as Butler's Commander (Cole), July 3, 1917;
19. Daily Diary Report, Brigade
NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632.
York: Minton, Balch & Co.,
20. John H. Craige, Black Bagdad (New
1933), p. 39.
The White King of La Gonave.
21. Wirkus and Dudley, Santo Domingo and Haiti, p. 68.
22. Inman, Through
Haiti," World's Work, XXXIV, No. 1
23. George Marvin, "Healthy
(May, 1917), 33-51.
Plans for Employment of Naval Forces
24. "D' Confidential Tentative
32 ca. July, 1914; NA, RG45,
Stationed in Haitien Fonts-Port-au-PHince,"
WA-7, Box 631.
to Wilson, Aug, 3, 1915. McMillen,
25. SD 838.00/1275B, Lansing LXII, No. 398, 524.
U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, B.
May 26, 1916. New York
26. SD 838.00/1403, Waller to J. Wright,
Herald, Apr. 29, 1916.
in the Times (San Juan,
27. Undated report on article Records appearing of the Bureau of Insular AfPuerto Rico), June 6, 1916; NA,
fairs, RG350, File No. 22843-9.
Feb. 9 and Mar. 28, 1917; NA, RG45,
28. Daily Diary Reports (Cole),
WA-7, Box 632.
May 26, 1916. New York
26. SD 838.00/1403, Waller to J. Wright,
Herald, Apr. 29, 1916.
in the Times (San Juan,
27. Undated report on article Records appearing of the Bureau of Insular AfPuerto Rico), June 6, 1916; NA,
fairs, RG350, File No. 22843-9.
Feb. 9 and Mar. 28, 1917; NA, RG45,
28. Daily Diary Reports (Cole),
WA-7, Box 632. --- Page 284 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 92-96
RADM, USN, Military Gov29. Cole personal letter to H. S. Knapp, RG45, WA-7, Box 632. SD
ernor of Santo Domingo, Apr. 8, 1917; NA,
Port-au-Prince, to
838.00/1453, Marston, Office of Civil Administrator,
Cole, Apr. 16, 1917.
reports in Confidential File, MAR30. See, for example, intelligence
CORPS HQ Haiti MSS, Box 23.
from L. Cappel, German
31. English translation of German message
Chancellor, Berlin,
to the German Imperial
minister at Port-au-Prince, dateline Mar. 31, 1917, intercepted and sent
via M. Bieler, The Hague, the British Ambassador, June 9, 1917; NA,
to the State Department by
RG45, WA-7, Box 632.
to Office of Naval Intelligence,
32. Brigade Commander (Russell) Brigade Commander (Russell),
Feb. 5, 1918; ibid. Daily Diary Reports,
Dec. 25 and 28, 1917; ibid.
BRIG GEN, USMC, June 22, 1917;
33. Butler to John A. Lejeune, MARCORPS MUS.
Smedley Darlington Butler Papers, 52-53.
34. Vandegrift, Once A Marine, pp.
of Santo Domingo, Apr. 8
35. Cole to Knapp, Military Governor WA-7, Box 632.
and 13 and July 24, 1917; NA, RG45,
LXII, No. 398, 525.
36. McMillen, U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, 31, 1917, and Jan. 29, 1918;
37. Butler to John A. McIlhenny, MARCORPS Dec.
MUS.
Smedley Darlington Butler Papers, Commander (Cole), May 12, 1917;
38. Daily Diary Report, Brigade
NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632. of July 24, 1918; ibid., Box 634.
39. Dartiguenave Decree
Commander, Mar. 30, July 20,
40. Daily Diary Reports, Brigade 1918; ibid., Box 632. The American
Aug. 21, and Dec. 22, 1917, Jan. 31, 12 Haitian frms out of a total of
blacklists for World War I included Journal of Business, XXI, No. 2
1,019 for all of Latin America; Rippy,
(April, 1948), 65.
Occupied Haiti (New York: Writers Pub41. Emily G. Balch (ed.),
lishing Co., 1927), 55.
Concerning the Replacing of
42. SD 838.105/122, "Memorandum
Guard," by John H.
of Haiti by a Legation
the Present Occupation
Russell, ca. March, 1919.
of the Navy (Operations), July
43. Brigade Commander to Secretary Records, Haiti, Filecase 70.
16, 1919; NA, RG127, Miscellaneous Commander (Russell), Jan. 23 and
44. Daily Diary Reports, Brigade Box 632.
Feb. 21, 1920; NA, RG45, WA-7, Commander to Marine Corps Head45. Message draft, Brigade
. SD 838.105/122, "Memorandum
Guard," by John H.
of Haiti by a Legation
the Present Occupation
Russell, ca. March, 1919.
of the Navy (Operations), July
43. Brigade Commander to Secretary Records, Haiti, Filecase 70.
16, 1919; NA, RG127, Miscellaneous Commander (Russell), Jan. 23 and
44. Daily Diary Reports, Brigade Box 632.
Feb. 21, 1920; NA, RG45, WA-7, Commander to Marine Corps Head45. Message draft, Brigade --- Page 285 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 96-101
quarters, December, 1920; NA, RG127,
Filecase 70. Also copies of the
Miscellaneous Records, Haiti,
telligence reports on Germans, ibid. deportation agreements, along with in46. Marine Corps
ibid.
Headquarters to Brigade Commander, Dec. 1920;
47. SD 838.00/2382, S. W. Morgan to
48. SD 838.011/69, "The New Haitian Kellogg, May 5, 1927.
Mayer, Jan. 3, 1921.
Constitution of 1918," by F.
49. For Butler's behind-the-scenes
of the Dartiguenave
account of American
government and the
manipulation
see Thomas, Old Gimlet Eye, pp. 214-16. dissolution of the Assembly,
50. SD 838.011/23,
51. SD 838.00/1675a, Bailly-Blanchard to Lansing, June 21, 1917.
52. Daily Diary
Lansing to Wilson, June 23, 1917.
NA, RG45, WA-7, Report, Box 632. Brigade Commander (Cole), June 21, 1917;
53. SD 838.011/69, "The New Haitian
Jan. 3, 1921.
Constitution of 1918," by Mayer,
54. SD 838.011/61, Bailly-Blanchard
55. Testimony of Alexander S.
to Lansing, June 18, 1918.
Hearings, 1922, pp. 566-68. SD Williams, LT COL, USMC; Senate
May 29, 1918, enclosing Commandant 838.011/57, Bailly-Blanchard to Lansing,
Letter of May 20, 1918.
Gendarmerie d'Haiti Circular
56. Brigade Commander
June 17, 1918; NA, RG45, (Russell) to Chief of Naval
57.
WA-7, Box 632.
Operations,
Josephus Daniels Daniels to Roosevelt, July 15, 1933, quoted in D.
in Mexico (Madison: Univ.
David Cronon,
p. 68. At this time Daniels was Roosevelt's of Wisconsin Press, 1960),
58. For a copy of the
ambassador to Mexico.
59. SD 838.154/4, constitution, see FR, 1918, pp. 487-502.
closing report on corvée Bailly-Blanchard submitted
to Lansing, Nov. 16, 1918, en60. Butler to
by Williams, Nov. 9, 1918.
Franklin D. Roosevelt: Roosevelt, The Dec. 28, 1917, quoted in Frank Freidel,
1952), 282n.
Apprenticeship (Boston: Little, Brown & Co.,
61. Knapp to Daniels, Nov. 2, 1920; NA,
62. Testimony of A. S. Williams,
RG45, WA-7, Box 632.
1918-19; Senate Hearings, 1922,
commandant of the Gendarmerie,
Evans; ibid., pp. 164-67. Also SD pp. 555-56. Testimony of Rev. L. Ton
Bishop of North Haiti, to Lansing, 838.00/1551, Monsignor F. Kersuzan,
63. Proclamation of
Sept. 17, 1918,
Brigade Commander Aug. 22, 1918, quoted in Daily Diary
(Little), Aug. 23, 1918; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box Report, 632.
,
commandant of the Gendarmerie,
Evans; ibid., pp. 164-67. Also SD pp. 555-56. Testimony of Rev. L. Ton
Bishop of North Haiti, to Lansing, 838.00/1551, Monsignor F. Kersuzan,
63. Proclamation of
Sept. 17, 1918,
Brigade Commander Aug. 22, 1918, quoted in Daily Diary
(Little), Aug. 23, 1918; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box Report, 632. --- Page 286 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 101-106
General Commandant,
64. John H. Russell, COL, USMC, to Major Office, General CorNov. 14, 1918; NA, RG127, Adjutant and Inspector's
respondence, 1913-22, Box 243.
(Lejeune) to Secretary of the Navy
65. Major General Commandant RG 80, File No. 5526-321.
(Daniels), Nov. 1, 1920; NA,
BRIG GEN, USMC; Senate Hear66. Testimony of Albertus W. Catlin,
ings, 1922, pp. 649-69. Catlin, Feb. 15, 1919; ibid., pp. 654-55. Testi67. Report of Hooker to
mony of Hooker; ibid., pp. 469-70. Commandant of the Gendarmerie,
68. Testimony of A. S. Williams,
1919; ibid., p. 598.
British consul, Port-au-Prince, quoted in
69. Letter from Peralte to Commander (Catlin), June 25, 1919; NA,
Daily Diary Report, Brigade Also Russell to Barnett, Oct. 17, 1919; Senate
RG45, WA-7, Box 632.
Hearings, 1922, p. 428.
70. Ibid., p. 1728.
1919; Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 428.
71. Russell to Barnett, Oct. 17,
309.
72. Wise, A Marine Tells It to You, p.
MSS, Container 4.
73. Waller to Lejeune, Oct. 13, 1915; Lejeune
74. Heinl, Soldiers of the Sea, p. 242.
75. Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 451.
9.
76. Millett, The Politics of Intervention, p. of Haiti," Nation, CXI, No.
77. Herbert J. Seligmann, "The Conquest 180. Drake Scottman, "A Marine
2871 (July 10, 1920), 35-36. Franck, No. 2 (February, 1943), 22 ff.
Remembers Haiti," Leatherneck, XXVI,
78. Senate Hearings, 1922, pp. 813-932.
alleged to have
of investigation of certain irregularities
79. "Report
officers and enlisted men in the Republic of Haiti,"
been committed by USMC, Nov. 3, 1919; ibid., pp. 461-73.
by T. C. Turner, MA], Nov. 1, 1920; NA, RG80, File No. 5528-321.
80. Lejeune to Daniels,
429.
81. Senate Hearings, 1922, p.
1930; Daniels MSS, Container
82. Daniels to W. A. White, Feb. 18,
642.
USMC, Adjutant and Inspector of the
83. H. C. Haines, BRIG GEN, Commander, Port-au-Prince, Dec. 24,
Marine Corps, to Russell, Brigade
1919; NA, RG80, File No. 5526-321:5.
84. Daniels, Cabinet Diaries, p. 553. NA, RG80, File No. 5526-321.
85. Lejeune to Daniels, Nov. 1, 1920;
Senate Hearings, 1922, pp.
86. For the record of the Mayo court, see
1585-1668. A Marine Tells It to You, p. 334.
87. Wise,
Commander, Port-au-Prince, Dec. 24,
Marine Corps, to Russell, Brigade
1919; NA, RG80, File No. 5526-321:5.
84. Daniels, Cabinet Diaries, p. 553. NA, RG80, File No. 5526-321.
85. Lejeune to Daniels, Nov. 1, 1920;
Senate Hearings, 1922, pp.
86. For the record of the Mayo court, see
1585-1668. A Marine Tells It to You, p. 334.
87. Wise, --- Page 287 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 106-118
88. NYT, Oct. 14, 1920, p. 1.
Senate Hearings, 1922, pp.
89. Barnett to Russell, Oct. 20, 1919;
1722-23.
CHAPTER 6
scholar has stated that "Wilson gave only casual
1. One noted Wilson
Arthur S. Link, Wilson, The
attention to the task in Haiti after 1916";
Princeton Univ. Press,
Struggle for Neutrality; 1914-1915 (Princeton:
1960), p. 538.
(Cole) to Commander, Cruiser Force,
2. Expeditionary Commander 1916; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632.
Atlantic Fleet (Knapp), Dec. 17,
to Daniels, Dec. 20, 1916;
Cruiser Force (Knapp)
3. Commander
ibid.
to Comander Cruiser Force (Knapp),
4. Chief of Naval Operations
Jan. 11, 1917; ibid.
of Roosevelt's visit, see Frank Freidel,
5. For a detailed account
(Boston: Little, Brown & Co.,
Franklin D. Roosevelt: The Apprenticeship
1952), pp. 277-83.
15, 1933; Roosevelt MSS, OF 237.
6. Daniels to Roosevelt, July
7. Freidel, p. 283.
and Santo Domingo, 1917," unpublished
8. Roosevelt, "Trip to Haiti
Box 155. Armour to Roosevelt, July 7,
travel diary; Roosevelt MSS, RG10,
was financial adviser to the
1934; Roosevelt MSS, PPF1710. Mcilhenny
from 1919 to 1922.
Haitian government
Feb. 17, 1917; Roosevelt MSS,
9. H. L. Roosevelt to F. D. Roosevelt,
RG10, Box 145.
Feb. 17 and Mar. 24, 1917.
10. H. L. Roosevelt to F. D. Roosevelt, 1917; ibid, Boxes 145, 155.
H. L. Roosevelt to J. A. Mcllhenny, Mar. Feb. 4, 17, 1917; ibid., Box 145.
11. H. L. Roosevelt to F. D. Roosevelt, Mar. 24, 1917; ibid., Box 155.
12. H. L. Roosevelt to F. D. Roosevelt,
1919, quoted in Alfred B.
13. Louis Howe to F. D. Roosevelt, Jan. 16, Alfred A. Knopf, 1962),
Rollins, Jr., Roosevelt and Howe (New York:
p. 173.
11 and Oct. 14, 1922. Mcll14. F. D. Roosevelt to McIlhenny, Aug. Roosevelt MSS, Group 14.
13 and Oct. 18, 1922;
henny to Roosevelt, July
ibid.
Also undated McIlhenny proposal, pp-, 1922; Roosevelt MSS, Group 14.
15. Roosevelt to McIlhenny, Oct. 14,
ibid.
to Roosevelt, July 13, 1922;
16. McIlhenny
to A. T. Ruan, fnancial adviser to Haiti,
17. SD 838.51/578b, Lansing
Dec. 20, 1916.
McIlhenny, Aug. Roosevelt MSS, Group 14.
13 and Oct. 18, 1922;
henny to Roosevelt, July
ibid.
Also undated McIlhenny proposal, pp-, 1922; Roosevelt MSS, Group 14.
15. Roosevelt to McIlhenny, Oct. 14,
ibid.
to Roosevelt, July 13, 1922;
16. McIlhenny
to A. T. Ruan, fnancial adviser to Haiti,
17. SD 838.51/578b, Lansing
Dec. 20, 1916. --- Page 288 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 118-117
Commander (Cole), Feb. 27, 1917;
18. Daily Diary Report, Brigade
NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632.
Commander (Cole), Feb. 25, 1917;
19. Daily Diary Report, Brigade extension, see FR, 1917, pp. 807-8.
ibid. For a copy of the treaty
s Ladies Home Journal,
20. Woodrow Wilson, "The Mexican Question,
XXXIII, No. 10 (October, 1916), 9.
21. NYT, Apr. 26, 1916, p. 11. 18 and 26, 1930; Daniels MSS, Con22. Daniels to W. A. White, Feb.
Post, CCIII, No. 2, 321 ff.
tainers 641, 642. Also Daniels, Saturday Evening Years
Peace, 1910-1917
Daniels, The Wilson Era:
of
Also Josephus Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1944), p. 179.
(Chapel
of Foreign Affairs to Haitian Minister in France,
23. Haitian Minister
Dantès
Pour une Haiti
Jan. 22, 1919; FR, 1919, II, 314.
1929), Bellegarde, II, 102-5.
heureuse (Port-au-Prince: Imp. Chéraquit, Paris, to State Department,
2A. SD 838.00/1563, American Mission,
Mar. 14, 1919.
of State, Apr. 5, 1919; FR,
25. Bailly-Blanchard to Acting Secretary "Memorandum Concerning the
1919, II, 330-31. Also SD 838.105/122, of Haiti by a Legation Guard," by
Replacing of the Present Occupation
1919. Also SD 838.00/1574,
John H. Russell, COL, USMC, ca. March, to Lansing, Mar. 31, 1919.
Acting Secretary of the Navy (Roosevelt) of State (Phillips) to Bailly26. SD 838.00/1569, Acting Secretary
American Mission, Paris
Blanchard, Mar. 22, 1919. SD 838.00/1568,
(Lansing), to State Department, Mar. 23, 1919. Roosevelt MSS, RG10,
27. McIlhenny to Roosevelt, May 2, 1919;
Box 127.
SURGEON, USN, to H. S. Knapp, RADM, USN,
28. N. T. McLean,
Box 632. Butler to John A. Lejeune,
Aug. 7, 1917; NA, RG45, WA-7, Smedley Darlington Butler Papers,
BRIG GEN, USMC, June 22, 1917;
MARCORPS MUS.
June 27 and Sept. 9, 1917;
29. Knapp to Chief of Naval Operations, of the Navy (Daniels),
NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632. Knapp to Secretary
Jan. 10, 1921; NA, RG80, File No. 5526-39:299:1. of the West Indies
30. Testimony of Richard E. Forrest, president
Corporation; Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 757.
Haiti and the United States, p. 225.
31. Montague,
May 2, 1919, and Roosevelt to McIlhenny,
32. McIlhenny to Roosevelt, RG10, Box 127.
May 23, 1919; Roosevelt MSS,
Senate Hearings, 1922, pp. 115,
33. Testimony of Roger L. Farnham;
120.
39:299:1. of the West Indies
30. Testimony of Richard E. Forrest, president
Corporation; Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 757.
Haiti and the United States, p. 225.
31. Montague,
May 2, 1919, and Roosevelt to McIlhenny,
32. McIlhenny to Roosevelt, RG10, Box 127.
May 23, 1919; Roosevelt MSS,
Senate Hearings, 1922, pp. 115,
33. Testimony of Roger L. Farnham;
120. --- Page 289 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 118-120
memorandum, March, 1918. SD 838.00/
34. SD 838.51/911, F. Mayer
1666, Munro memorandum, Aug. 11, 1920. Haitian policies by Secre35. Defense of the Wilson administration's 21, 1920, p. 16.
tary of State Bainbridge Colby, NYT, Sept.
36. NYT, Aug, 19, 1920, p. 15.
in NYT, Aug. 29, 1920,
Aug. 28, 1920, quoted
37. Harding speech,
14.
pt. II, p. 12. NYT, Sept. 18, 1920, p. This Way; The Autobiography of
38. James Weldon Johnson, York: Along Viking Press, 1933), 358-60.
James Weldon Johnson (New
the release of the
inside story explaining
39. For an undocumented of the election campaign, see John H.
Barnett letter during the heat York: Minton, Balch & Co., 1934), pp.
Craige, Cannibal Cousins (New Barnett, MAJ GEN, USMC; Senate
84-87. See also testimony of George
Hearings, 1922, pp. 425-34.
Tribune (New York), Eagle (Brook40. Public Ledger (Philadelphia), Haitian Scandal," Literary Digest, LXVII,
lyn) quoted in "Probing the
No. 5 (Oct. 30, 1920), 16-17. 17. Franck blamed President Wilson and
41. NYT, Oct. 15, 1920, p. take steps to change the prevailing low
Secretary Daniels for failing to
on the ethos of
value placed on Haitian lives. For a different perspective Knights of the Cockpit:
marine air operations, see Irwin R. Franklyn,
York: Dial Press,
A Romantic Epic of the Flying Marines in Haiti (New
1931).
to Colby, Sept. 1, 1920, and Colby to
42. SD 838.51/954, Mcllhenny
World's Work, XXXIV, No. 1
Mcllhenny, Sept. 4, 1920. See also Marvin,
companion of Franklin
(May, 1917), 33-51. Marvin had been Roosevelt's a traveling 1917 tour of Haiti, and
D. Roosevelt and McIlhenny during
unemployed in Haiti.
in
was currently
"The Press and American Intervention
43. John W. Blassingame,
1904-1920," Caribbean Studies, IX,
Haiti and the Dominican Republic,
No. 2 (July, 1969), 27-43.
No. 2871, 35-36. James Weldon Johnson,
44. Seligmann, Nation, CXI, CXI, Nos. 2878, 2879, 2880, and 2882
"Self-Determining Haiti," Nation,
(Aug. 28 through Sept. 25, 1920), 4 parts. IX, No. 2, 27-43.
45. Blassingame, Caribbean Studies, 345-58. Georges Sylvain, Dix
46. Johnson, Along This Way . 5
Editions
années de lutte pour la liberté: 1915-1925 98-99. (Port-au-Prince: Also Danache, Le PrésiHenri Deschamps, 195-P), I, 4-6, 76-78, 97-102.
dent Dartiguenave et les américains, pp. quoted in Sylvain, Dix an47. Gruening to Sylvain, Sept., 1921,
nées : ,I, 125-28.
Georges Sylvain, Dix
46. Johnson, Along This Way . 5
Editions
années de lutte pour la liberté: 1915-1925 98-99. (Port-au-Prince: Also Danache, Le PrésiHenri Deschamps, 195-P), I, 4-6, 76-78, 97-102.
dent Dartiguenave et les américains, pp. quoted in Sylvain, Dix an47. Gruening to Sylvain, Sept., 1921,
nées : ,I, 125-28. --- Page 290 ---
48. Oswald
NOTES TO PAGES 121-125
Garrison Villard,
Editor (New York: Harcourt, Brace Fighting Years; Memoirs of a LAberal
of the Union Patriotique
& Co., 1939), pp. 478-86. Memoir
1921), 751-75.
reprinted in Nation, CXII, No. 2916 (May 25,
49. Ibid., No. 2920 (June 22, 1921), 861. For
in the American press, which were
comments on the memoir
see "Haiti Charges Us with
generally favorable to the Occupation,
(June 18, 1921), 12.
Misrule," Literary Digest, LXIX, No, 12
50. Interview with Ernest Angell, counsel
Patriotique, the Haiti-Santo Domingo
representing the Union
NAACP before the Senate Inquiry; New Independence York
Society, and the
51. Secret alliance between Ch.
City, July 28, 1970.
Bobo, represented by Marc Raphael Emmanual Kernizan and Rosalvo
Public Library, Special Collections Séjour, Paris, Jan. 8, 1921; Boston
was an elaborate alliance
(Haiti), Rare Book Department, This
with diplomatic posts providing for mutual support for the
dential
going to the losers along with
presidency,
succession.
guarantee of presi52. For example, intelligence
Haitien, 1921; NA, RG127, Miscellaneous reports on 65 important Haitians in Cap
53. My interview with Senator Ernest Records (Haiti), Filecase 70.
Aug. 4, 1967.
Gruening, Washington, D.C.,
54. Senate Report No. 794, 67th
67th Cong., 4th Sess., 1923, LXIV, Cong., Pt. 2d Sess., 1922, reprinted in CR,
55. Medill McCormick, "Our
2, 1121-31.
(Dec. 1, 1920), 615-16,
Failure in Haiti," Nation, CXI, No. 2891
56. Senate Report No. 794.
57. Senate Hearings, 1922, pp.
58. Senate Report No. 794.
858-59, 1694-95.
59. SD 838.00/1825%, McCormick to
60. Hughes to Denby, Oct. 18, 1921; Hughes, Dec. 14, 1921.
61. Interview between John C.
NA, RG80, File No. 5528-321:37.
1967; John C. Chapin, "The Marines' Chapin and Dana G, Munro, Feb. 15,
Haiti: 1915-1922," unpublished
Role in the U.S. Occupation of
(1967), p. 103.
M.A, thesis, George Washington Univ.
62. John H. Russell, "History of Haiti,"
MARCORPS MUS, MS File No. 4-50.
unpublished MS (n.d.), 1;
63. SD 838.00/1842, Russell
64. SD 838.105/122,
memorandum, Oct. 1, 1921.
Present Occupation of Haiti "Memorandum by a
Concerning the Replacing of the
1919. U.S., Department of State, Legation Guard," by Russell, ca. March,
sioner at Port-au-Prince,
Report of the American High CommisHaiti, 1925. (Referred to hereafter as Annual
, MS File No. 4-50.
unpublished MS (n.d.), 1;
63. SD 838.00/1842, Russell
64. SD 838.105/122,
memorandum, Oct. 1, 1921.
Present Occupation of Haiti "Memorandum by a
Concerning the Replacing of the
1919. U.S., Department of State, Legation Guard," by Russell, ca. March,
sioner at Port-au-Prince,
Report of the American High CommisHaiti, 1925. (Referred to hereafter as Annual --- Page 291 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 125-128
"Memorandum on the JudiReport, High Commissioner, various years.) 17, 1920; NA, RG80, Box 135, File
cial System of Haiti," by Russell, Mar.
No. 238-1.
Paul Morand, Hiver caraibe (Paris: Ernest
65. Danache, pp. 125-26. W. B. Seabrook, The Magic Island (New
Flammarion, ed., 1929), 102-3.
148.
York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1929), p.
comptroller of the Haitian66. My interview with Harry R. Long,
of the West
American Sugar Co. from 1916 to 1918 and vice-president Somerville, N.J.,
Port-au-Prince, from 1918 to 1920;
Indies Trading Co.,
other members of the board favored admitting
Apr. 22, 1967. Long and
"Journal of W. Cameron Forbes," s9 Second
the Swiss. W. Cameron Forbes, journal, pp. 32, 37; LC, W. Cameron
Series, III, 1930-34, unpublished
Forbes Papers.
see Hughes to Russell, Feb. 11,
67. For Russell's formal instructions,
1922; FR, 1922, II, 461-66. "Our Haitian Problem," Foreign Affairs,
68. Arthur C. Millspaugh,
VII, No. 4 (July, 1929), 556-70.
Nov. 15, 1924, and J. C. Grew
69. SD 883.01/42, Russell to Hughes,
code for Egypt.)
Dec. 19, 1924. (883 is the decimal
to Russell,
70. Ibid.
Modern Egypt (London: Macmillan & Co.,
71. The Earl of Cromer,
1911), p. 4.
No. 2," Russell to treaty officials, Brigade Com72. "Memorandum
and Commandant of the Gendarmerie,
mander, Chargé d'Affaires, Records of the Bureau of Insular Affairs, RG350,
Mar. 24, 1922; NA,
Memorandum No. 8," Russell to General ReFile No. 26778. "Instruction
ibid. SD 838.51/1555, Russell to Hughes,
ceiver of Customs, Apr. 21, 1923; Munro to Francis White, Apr. 26, 1924.
Apr. 9, 1923. SD 838.105/300,
Apr. 28, 1927. SD 838.105/317,
Also SD 838.105/319, Russell to Kellogg,
W. R. Scott to W. C.
Russell to Kellogg, Apr. 26, 1927. SD 838.51A/190, S. de la Rue to W. R. Castle,
Thurston, Feb. 3, 1931. SD 838.51A/154,
May 8, 1929.
Affairs, VII, No. 4, 557-58. For information
73. Millspaugh, Foreign
Scott to Thurston, Feb.
dismissal, see SD 838.51A/190,
on Millspaugh's
Millspaugh to Stimson, Jan. 31, 1931.
3, 1931, and SD 838.51A/189,
Mar. 14, 1927; Lejeune MSS,
74. J.S. Turrill, COL, USMC, to Lejeune,
Container 4.
former Cabinet secretary implies that Dartiguenave his
75. Dartiguenave's
and
selected Borno as
voluntarily declined reelection mind and personally decided to run, but was prevented
successor, then changed his
135-48.
from doing sO by Russell; Danache, pp.
, Jan. 31, 1931.
3, 1931, and SD 838.51A/189,
Mar. 14, 1927; Lejeune MSS,
74. J.S. Turrill, COL, USMC, to Lejeune,
Container 4.
former Cabinet secretary implies that Dartiguenave his
75. Dartiguenave's
and
selected Borno as
voluntarily declined reelection mind and personally decided to run, but was prevented
successor, then changed his
135-48.
from doing sO by Russell; Danache, pp. --- Page 292 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 128-180
quotations of his poetry,
76. For a laudatory description of Borno, plus de notre démocratie (Paris:
Damase, Les mensonges
see Pierre-Louis Universitaires de France, 1933).
Imp. des Presses
BRIG GEN, USMC, to John A. Lejeune,
77. Littleton W. T. Waller,
MSS, Container 4. SD 838.00/
BRIG GEN, USMC, June 26, 1916; Lejeune 1916. Daily Diary Report, Brigade
1424, Stabler memorandum, Nov. 22, NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632.
Commander (Russell), Nov. 23, 1918; K. Streit, "Parting of the Ways
78. References to Mussolini in Clarence
and John H. Craige,
Faces Us in Haiti," > NYT, Mar. 18, 1928, Pt. III, p. 6,
LXVI (1934),
CAPT, USMC, "Haitian Vignettes, National "Problems Geographic, of Interest to Haiti
435-85. Borno quotes are in Louis Borno, the Pan American Union, LX, No. 9
and the United States," Bulletin Circular of of Oct. 8, 1925, is quoted in Ray-
(Sept., 1926), 845-51. Borno
Occupation of Haiti," Foreign Policy
mond Leslie Buell, "The American V, No. 15 (Oct. 2, 1929), 387. Annual
Association Information Service,
4-6.
Report, High Commissioner, 1928, pp.
79. Millspaugh, chap. iv. 165-69. See also Vilfort Beauvoir, Le
80. Cumberland MSS, pp.
des Etats-Unis d'Amérique sur la
contrôle financier du Gouvernement Cadoret, 1930), for another inRépublique d'Haiti (Bordeaux: Imp.
cident of Cumberland holding up pay checks.
81. Danache, p. 101.
Concerning Replacing of the Pres82. SD 838.105/122, "Memorandum Guard," by Russell, ca. March,
ent Occupation of Haiti by a Legation
1919.
draft of Butler letter to J. Butler Wright, State Department,
83. Pencil
Butler Papers, MARCORPS MUS.
Oct. 13, 1916; Smedley Darlington May 2, 1919; Roosevelt MSS, RG10,
84. McIlhenny to Roosevelt,
Box 127.
Division of Latin American Affairs (Rowe),
85. McIlhenny to chief,
July 21, 1920; FR, 1920, II, 762-67. memorandum, Jan. 19, 1918.
86. SD 838.516/117, Mayer
to Lansing, Feb. 6, 1918.
87. SD 838.516/105, Bailly-Blanchard d'Haiti," memorandum sub88. "Banque Nationale de la République National City Bank on Feb. 12, 1930;
mitted to Henry P. Fletcher by
Forbes Commission Papers, Box 1.
Division of Latin Ameri89. SD 838.516/180, Minutes of Conference, A. Mcllhenny. Testimony of
Mar. 9, 1922, statement by J.
can Affairs,
American Development Co. of Haiti;
H. M. Pilkington, vice-president,
Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 796.
anchard d'Haiti," memorandum sub88. "Banque Nationale de la République National City Bank on Feb. 12, 1930;
mitted to Henry P. Fletcher by
Forbes Commission Papers, Box 1.
Division of Latin Ameri89. SD 838.516/180, Minutes of Conference, A. Mcllhenny. Testimony of
Mar. 9, 1922, statement by J.
can Affairs,
American Development Co. of Haiti;
H. M. Pilkington, vice-president,
Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 796. --- Page 293 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 130-184
to Colby, July 30, 1920, and Bailly90. Haitian chargé (Blanchet) 5, 1920; FR, 1920, II, 767-71.
Blanchard to Colby, Aug.
Aug. 6 and 7, 1920; ibid., pp. 771-72.
91. Colby to Bailly-Blanchard, Situation in Haiti," by Munro, Aug. 11,
SD 838.00/1666, "The Present
1920.
Welles to Hughes, Mar. 8, 1922.
92. SD 838.51/1417,
of Conference in Latin American Di93. SD 838.516/180, Minutes
of State F. M.
vision, Mar. 9, 1922, and Welles to Assistant Secretary
Dearing, Mar. 14, 1922.
Mar. 8, 1922. For a detailed
94. SD 838.516/181, Munro to Welles, Marc E. Malval, La politique
comparison of the two charters, see d'Haiti depuis 1910 (Paris: Unifinancière extérieure de la République
versité de Paris, 1932), pp. 75-88.
Dec. 3, 1916.
95. SD 838.51/578%, Wilson to Lansing, American Affairs memorandum
96. SD 838.51/628, Division of Latin
of Farnham visit, May 24, 1917.
July 1, 1921, and Mc97. SD 838.51/1126, Maumus to McIlhenny,
Ilhenny to F. Mayer, July 26, 1921.
American Affairs memorandum,
98. SD 838.51/1204, Division of Latin
Oct. 21, 1920.
Division of Latin American Affairs memorandum
99. SD 838.51/1262,
Russell (?) to Hughes, April
to Welles, Nov. 16, 1921. SD 838.51/1263,
26, 1922.
Sept. 28, 1922; FR, 1922, II, 514. New York
100. Hughes to J. C. Dunn,
Bulletin, Oct. 10, 1922.
Journal of Commerce and Commercial Financial History of the Republic
101. See Sténio Vincent, Outline de of I'Etat, 1939), pp. 17-21. Malval, pp.
of Haiti (Port-au-Prince: Imp.
99-101.
Harding to Hughes, July 31, 1922. 838.51/1323,
102. SD 838.51/1336,
16, 1922.
Frank McIntyre to Maumus, June Medill
Feb. 21, 1924. Jo103. SD 838.00/2004, Hughes to
McCormick, Record of Forty Years (Bosseph C. Grew, Turbulent Era; A Diplomatic 634. Charles Evans Hughes, Our
ton: Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1952), I,
The Stafford Little
Relations to Nations of the Western Hemisphere: Univ. Press, 1928), p. 79.
Lecture Series for 1928 (Princeton: Princeton H. Ferrell (eds.), The Talkative
104. Howard H. Quint and Robert
of Calvin Coolidge
President; The Of-the-Record Press Conferences 1964), p. 223. Collidge state-
(Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press,
ment of Mar. 13, 1925, ibid., p. 232. LXII, Pt. 9, 8974.
105. CR, 67th Cong, 2d Sess., 1922,
8), p. 79.
Lecture Series for 1928 (Princeton: Princeton H. Ferrell (eds.), The Talkative
104. Howard H. Quint and Robert
of Calvin Coolidge
President; The Of-the-Record Press Conferences 1964), p. 223. Collidge state-
(Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press,
ment of Mar. 13, 1925, ibid., p. 232. LXII, Pt. 9, 8974.
105. CR, 67th Cong, 2d Sess., 1922, --- Page 294 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 136-139
CHAPTER 7
Blancs et noirs (Paris: E. Flammarion, ed., 1915),
1. Paul Reboux,
XXXIV, No. 1, 47. Marvin visited Haiti
p. 98. Marvin, World's Work, intervention and observed that by 1917
before and after the American racial
and superiority were no
the previous Haitian attitudes of
equality more subdued.
longer in evidence and that the people were
2. Thomas, Old Gimlet Eye, p. 231.
3. Ibid.
L. Foster, Combing the Caribbees (New
4. See, for instance, Harry
255. Robert Herrick article in the
York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1929), p.
Magic Island, pp. 147-48, 156;
New York World, Apr. 10, 1927; Seabrook, the East (Indianapolis: BobbsFrazier Hunt, The Rising Temper of "A Jim-Crow Situation in Haiti,"
Merrill Co., 1922), p. 192; E. W. Hutter, Ernest H. Gruening, "Haiti UnPlain Talk (March, 1929), pp. 349-56; (April, 1922), pp. 836-45.
der American Occupation," Century
and manager, Ameri5. Testimony of H. M. Pilkington, vice-president Hearings, 1922, p. 794.
Co. of Haiti; Senate
can Development
An American Dilemma (New York:
6. Gunnar Myrdal, and others,
in 1944.
McCraw-Hill Book Co., 1964), I, 60. Originally published
7. Foster, p. 255.
553. Harold N. Denny, "Proud
8. Daniels, Cabinet Diaries . NYT, s p. Oct. 9, 1932, Pt. VI, p. 8.
Haiti Demands Her Old Freedom,"
118.
Roaming Through the West Indies, p.
9. Franck,
836-45. Also NYT, Dec. 22,
10. Gruening, Century (April, 1922), pp.
Senate Hearings, 1922,
1929, p. 20. Also Testimony of Ernest Gruening,
p. 1220. Also Seabrook, p. 134.
No. 1, 51.
11. Marvin, World's Work, XXXIV, Colorful Black Republic," Independent,
12. Harry L. Foster, "That
111-13. Also Danache, Le Président
CXXI, No. 4079 (Aug. 4, 1928),
Dartiguenave . 9 p. 65.
(Philadelphia: Penn Pub13. Edna Taft, A Puritan in Voodoo-Land
lishing Co., 1938), chap. ii.
355.
14. Hutter, Plain Talk (March, Commander 1929), p. (R. M. Cutts) to American
15. SD 838.00/2870, Brigade 8, 1930, and Grummon to Stimson, Aug.
chargé (S. E. Grummon), Aug,
14, 1930.
"Fresh Hope for Haiti," Nation, CXXX, No.
16. Helena Hill Weed,
Seabrook, pp. 156-57.
3376 (Mar. 19, 1930), 342-44.
chap. X; MARCORPS HQ
17. Brigade Manual, 1932 (Port-au-Prince), the
Daniels to H. S. Knapp,
Haiti MSS, Box 30. Secretary of
Navy
0, and Grummon to Stimson, Aug.
chargé (S. E. Grummon), Aug,
14, 1930.
"Fresh Hope for Haiti," Nation, CXXX, No.
16. Helena Hill Weed,
Seabrook, pp. 156-57.
3376 (Mar. 19, 1930), 342-44.
chap. X; MARCORPS HQ
17. Brigade Manual, 1932 (Port-au-Prince), the
Daniels to H. S. Knapp,
Haiti MSS, Box 30. Secretary of
Navy --- Page 295 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 139-143
28, 1918; NA, RG80, File No. 5528-129. Testimony
RADM, USN, May
Hearings, 1922, p. 181. Wise, A Marine
of Rev. L. Ton Evans; Senate Wood, "The American Uplift in Haiti,"
Tells It to You, p. 334. Clement 1928), 152 ff. Scottman, Leatherneck,
Pt. I, Crisis, XXXV, No. 5 (May,
XXVI, No. 2, 22 ff.
78. Testimony of H. M. Pilkington;
18. Craige, Cannibal Cousins, p.
Along This Way, pp. 348Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 794. J. W. Johnson, World, Apr. 10, 1927. K. S.
49. Robert Herrick article in the New York
p. 2A.
New Republic, XXX, No. 381, 108. Seabrook,
Angell,
MSS, pp. 163-64.
19. Cumberland Lejeune to S. W. Morgan, Sept. 19, 1927.
20. SD 838.00/2402,
MARCORPS HQ Haiti MSS,
21. Brigade Manual, 1932, chap. X;
Box 30.
Weed, Nation, CXXX, No. 3376, 343. Seabrook,
22. Taft, p. 94. See also
pp. 156-57.
with Harry R. Long, comptroller of the Hai23. Ibid. Also interview
Somerville, N.J., Apr. 22, 1967.
tian-American Sugar Co., 1916-18,
24. Taft, p. 105.
343. Seabrook, p. 139. Rayford W.
25. Weed, Nation, CXXX, No. 3376,
Southern Workman (HampLogan, "Haiti: The Native Point of View," 36-40. K. S. Angell, New
LVIII, No. 1 (January, 1929),
ton Institute),
Republic, XXX, No. 381, 108.
Jan. 14, 1924. SD 838.4237/
26. SD 838.00/2007, Munro memorandum, 1922. For the Haitian minister's appraisal,
48, Russell to Hughes, Dec. 22,
Dec. 14, 1923. SD 838.4237/50,
Hughes to Coolidge,
SD
see 838.61/63a,
General) to Harding, Oct. 7, 1922.
Harry Daugherty (Attorney to Hughes, Oct. 18, 1922, and Hughes
838.4237/43, Medill McCormick
Harding to Hughes, Oct.
Oct. 21, 1922. SD 838.4237/45,
to McCormick, Journal of Negro History, XXV, No. 3, 330.
9, 1922. Padgett,
310-12.
27. Seabrook, p. 128. Wise, pp.
28. Seabrook, p. 133.
Tide of Color Against White World29. Lothrop Stoddard, The Rising Scribner's Sons, 1921), pp. 100, 227.
Supremacy (New York: Charles Development of Intervention in Haiti,"
30. Charles E. Chapman, "The
VII (1927), 299-319.
Hispanto-American Historical Review, H. S. Knapp, RADM, USN, to
31. "Supplementary Report on Haiti," 13, 1921; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632.
Secretary of the Navy (Denby), Jan.
ca. 1934), unpub32. Russell, "A Marine Looks Back on Haiti" File (n.d., No. 4-50.
lished MS, pp. 61, 67; MARCORPS MUS, MS
33. Wise, A Marine Tells It to You, p. 308.
ispanto-American Historical Review, H. S. Knapp, RADM, USN, to
31. "Supplementary Report on Haiti," 13, 1921; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632.
Secretary of the Navy (Denby), Jan.
ca. 1934), unpub32. Russell, "A Marine Looks Back on Haiti" File (n.d., No. 4-50.
lished MS, pp. 61, 67; MARCORPS MUS, MS
33. Wise, A Marine Tells It to You, p. 308. --- Page 296 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 143-145
the Replacing of the
"Memorandum Concerning
34. SD 838.105/122,
Guard," ca. March, 1919, by
Present Occupation of Haiti by a Legation
Russell.
Commission for the Study and Review
35. "Report of the President's of Haiti"; FR, 1930, III, 217-37.
of Conditions in the Republic Wilson to S. W. Morgan, Aug, 12, 1927.
36. SD 838.00/2373, W. M.
minister to Haiti),
37. Francis White to Dana G. Munro (American
Feb. 24, 1932; White MSS, Box 5.
to Stimson, Aug, 29, 1930.
38. SD 838.00/2881, S. E. Grummon
Haiti," Pt. I, Nation,
39. James Weldon Johnson, "Self-Determining
Nation, CXI, No.
CXI, No. 2878 (Aug, 28, 1920), 238. M. McCormick,
2891, 616.
to Wilson, Dec. 13, 1915. 838.51/449,
40. SD 838.51/448a, Lansing 1915. Also 838.51/1323, Frank McIntyre
Wilson to Lansing, Dec. 16,
June 16, 1922. Also
(chief, Bureau of Insular Affairs) to Maumus, 1922. See speech by Senator
838.51/1336, Harding to Hughes, July 31, of McIlhenny as financial
George W. Norris criticizing appointment 1922, LXII, Pt. 9, 8968-69. Norris
adviser; CR, 67th Cong, 2d Sess.,
who had no experience
argued that Mcllhenny was a political otherwise appointee unsuited for the job.
in financial administration and Wilson was to Morgan, Aug. 12, 1927, quoted
41. SD 838.00/2373, W. M.
of Haiti," Pt. II,
above. Paul H. Douglas, "The American Occupation 368-96. Hunt, Rising
Political Science Quarterly, XLII, No. 3 (1927),
1929), 349.
192. Hutter, Plain Talk (March,
Temper of The East, p. the West Indies, p. 118.
Franck, Roaming Through
commissioner) to Dr. Julius Klein (direc42. Franck E. Coombs (trade
Commerce), Aug. 30, 1922; NA,
tor, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Domestic Commerce, RG151, File
Records of the Bureau of Foreign and
No. 430.37.
to a 1964 inquiry Leyburn stated that
43. Leyburn, 103n. In response was for making this assertion; Leyhe did not recall what his authority in Ann Hurst letter to Robert D.
burn letter to Ann Hurst, 1964, quoted June 29, 1964, copy in my possession.
Heinl, Jr., COL, USMC (Ret.), McCormick to Hughes, Dec. 14, 1921.
44. SD 838.00/1825%,
Handle Haitians?" unpublished under45. Ann Hurst, "Southerners to
May 4, 1964. Ann Hurst letter to
graduate term paper, Wellesley College, in my possession. Hurst based
Robert D. Heinl, Jr., June 29, 1964, of copy the Register of the Commissioned
her conclusions on an examination States
and Marine Corps for
and Warrant Officers of the United
Navy publication covering the
the years in question. There is no of comparable enlisted men.
places of birth and duty stations
838.00/1825%,
Handle Haitians?" unpublished under45. Ann Hurst, "Southerners to
May 4, 1964. Ann Hurst letter to
graduate term paper, Wellesley College, in my possession. Hurst based
Robert D. Heinl, Jr., June 29, 1964, of copy the Register of the Commissioned
her conclusions on an examination States
and Marine Corps for
and Warrant Officers of the United
Navy publication covering the
the years in question. There is no of comparable enlisted men.
places of birth and duty stations --- Page 297 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 145-151
Bulletin (Marine Corps), VI, No. 9 (November, 1921),
46. Recruiter's
Eastern Recruiting Division to all dis2. Memorandum, Headquarters General Correspondence, Recruiting,
tricts, Apr. 18, 1924; NA, RG127,
1924-25, Box 3.
Grummon to Stimson, Aug. 29, 1930.
47. SD 838.00/2881, Russell to Stimson, Dec. 3, 1929.
48. SD 838.42/81,
RADM, USN, Military Governor of Santo
49. Cole to H. S. Knapp,
1922, pp. 1777-85.
Domingo, May 17, 1917; Senate Hearings, Commander (Cole), Feb. 25,
50. Ibid. Daily Diary Report, Brigade
1917; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632.
BRIG GEN, USMC; Senate
51. Testimony of Smedley D. Butler,
240.
Hearings, 1922, 517. Thomas, Old Gimlet Eye, p. York: Minton, Balch &
52. John Houston Craige, Black Bagdad (New
Co., 1933), 133.
Report, Brigade Commander (Russell),
53. Supplement to Daily Diary
Apr. 4, 1921; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632.
1926; Forbes Commission
54. Francis White to Kellogg, May 10,
Papers, Box 1, "Elections."
19, 1922; Le Moniteur
55. Louis Borno, Circulaire aux Préfets, May Les Mensonges de notre
(Port-au-Prince), May 20, 1922. Also Damase,
démocratie, pp. 155-64.
XXX, No. 381, 108.
56. K. S. Angell, New Republic,
29, 1930. Danache,
Grummon to Stimson, Aug.
57. SD 838.00/2881,
68-69.
69. Cumberland MSS, p. 157.
58. Danache, p.
McCormick to Hughes, Dec. 14, 1921.
59. SD 838.00/1825%,
Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 794.
60. Testimony of H. M. Pilkington; filles de France (Paris: Fasquelle
61. Marthe Oulié, Les Antilles,
Editeurs, 1935), p. 305
n'aime
les américains, mais . . " La
62. Arthur Lescouflair, "Je
pas
Les Péripéties d'une
Nov. 6, 1915. Beaugé Bercy,
Plume (Port-au.-Prince), Librairie L. Rodstein, 1941).
démocratie (Paris:
Sociology, XLVI, No. 1, 33. Murdo J.
63. Lobb, American Journal of Social Protest, *? Journal of Inter-AmerMacLeod, "The Haitian Novel of
ican Studies, IV, No. 2 (April, 1962), 207-21. "La Civilisation haitienne;
64. Lorimer Denis and François Duvalier,
Revue de la Société
notre mentalité est-elle africaine ou gallo-latine?" No. 23 (May, 1936), 1-29.
d'Histoire et de Géographie d'Haiti, VI, in Léopold Sédar-Senghor (ed.),
65. Jean-Paul Sartre, "Orphée Noir"
(Paris: Presses UniAnthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache
versitaires de France, 1948), pp. ix-xliv.
Duvalier,
Revue de la Société
notre mentalité est-elle africaine ou gallo-latine?" No. 23 (May, 1936), 1-29.
d'Histoire et de Géographie d'Haiti, VI, in Léopold Sédar-Senghor (ed.),
65. Jean-Paul Sartre, "Orphée Noir"
(Paris: Presses UniAnthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache
versitaires de France, 1948), pp. ix-xliv. --- Page 298 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 151-157
of "Négri-
"The French West Indian Background
66. G. R. Coulthard,
VI, No. 3 (December, 1961), 128-36.
tude," Caribbean Quarterly,
(Port-au-Prince: Imp. de l'Etat,
67. Stephen Alexis, Le Nègre Masqué
1933), 56-57, 67, 96.
(Port-au-Prince: Imp. V. Val68. Virgile Valcin, La Blanche Négresse
cin, 1934?).
"Me revoici Harlem," quoted in Pan Amer69. See Jean Brierre's poem
110. See Maurice Casseus, Viejo
ican Union, An Introduction to Haiti, 1935), p. for a proletarian novel about
(Port-au-Prince: Editions La Presse, in Cuba. For a biography of a Haitian
Haitian workers being exploited Bonnard Posy, Roussan Camille (Port-
"engagée" writer of the period, see
au-Prince: Imp. des Antilles, 1962).
Haters of Haiti," Independent,
70. See Harry L. Foster, "American 128-30, for a discussion of the martyr
CXXI, No. 4080 (Aug. 11, 1928),
Dantès Bellegarde, Dessalines
complex attributed to Haitian journalists. d'Editions et de Librairie, 1948), pp.
a parlé (Port-au-Prince: Société
the Occupation given at the
21-22. Also Bellegarde speech opposing
1930, quoted in La Presse
Assembly of the League of Nations, September,
(Port-au-Prince), Oct. 15, 1930.
to Garde d'Haiti,
71. G.J. O'Shea, chief of Police Office, Port-au-Prince,
July 6, 1929; NA, RG127, Filecase 251-450.
72. Foster, pp. 144, 254. Franck, p. 116. "Proud Haiti Demands Her
58. Harold N. Denny,
73. Vandegrift, p.
8.
and Office Operat-
> NYT, Oct. 9, 1932, Pt. VI, p. "Living
ComOld Freedom,
4, 1927, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic
ing Costs in Haiti," June
NA, Records of the Bureau of Foreign
merce, Special Circular No. 77;
File No. 27843-6. In 1927 four
and Domestic Commerce, RG350, Seabrook, p. 10.
servants cost a total of $31 monthly; in Haiti," Journal of Negro History,
74. Rayford W. Logan, "Education
XV, No. 4 (October, 1930), 401-60.
CHAPTER 8
241. Vandegrift, Once a Marine, p. 58.
1. Thomas, Old Gimlet Eye, p.
1926, pp. 2-3.
2. Annual Report, High Commissioner, White to Kellogg, Feb. 25, 1925.
3. SD 838.00/2108, Francis américaine . . . > 21n. Bellegarde points
4. Bellegarde, L'Uccupation
Haitians to vote in constituout the irony of the Occupation permitting arguing that they were too ignotional plebiscites while simultaneously
rant to choose elected representatives. An
in Pragmatism," >
B. Weatherly, "Haiti:
Experiment
5. Ulysses
XXXII, No. 3 (November, 1926), 353-66.
American Journal of Sociology,
.
3. SD 838.00/2108, Francis américaine . . . > 21n. Bellegarde points
4. Bellegarde, L'Uccupation
Haitians to vote in constituout the irony of the Occupation permitting arguing that they were too ignotional plebiscites while simultaneously
rant to choose elected representatives. An
in Pragmatism," >
B. Weatherly, "Haiti:
Experiment
5. Ulysses
XXXII, No. 3 (November, 1926), 353-66.
American Journal of Sociology, --- Page 299 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 157-162
Financial Adviser, 1927, p. 104.
6. Annual Report, article in New York World, Dec. 15, 1929, quoted
7. Eve E. Sorensen
1929, LXXII, Pt. 1, 913-14.
in CR, 71st Cong, 2d Sess.,
VII, No. 4, 556-70.
8. Millspaugh, Foreign Affairs, W. Mintz, "Peasant Markets," Scientific
9. See, for instance, Sidney 1960), 112 ff.
American, CCIII, No. 2 (August,
Change in Haiti: Patterns of
10. Charles John Erasmus, "Agricultural
XI, No. 4 (Winter,
Resistance and Acceptance," Human Organization,
1952), 20-26.
the Receivership of Customs, 1918
11. Republic of Haiti, Report of
36.
(Washington, 1919), p. 52; ibid. (1917), p.
12. McCrocklin, Garde d'Haiti, p. 122.
Aug. 29, 1930.
Grummon to Stimson,
13. SD 838.00/2881,
of Haitian payrolls, see Caperton to Waller,
14. For American scrutiny
Haiti MSS, Box 25. Also Vandegrift,
Jan. 14, 1916; MARCORPS HQ American standards of honesty was the
p. 52. A notable exception to high of customs at Port-au-Prince accept1933 case of the American collector Department of State press release, Apr.
ing bribes from local merchants;
13, 1933; FR, 1933, V, 788-89.
du Gouvemement des Etats-Unis
15. Beauvoir, Le Contrôle financier
sur la République d'Haiti, pp. 124-35. 1929; FR, 1929, III, 211-15.
16. Russell to Stimson, Apr. 2, that the loans were forced on them by
17. Some Haitians contended of Georges N. Leger, U.S., Congress,
the United States; see testimony Sale of Foreign Bonds or Securities in the
Senate, Committee on Finance,
1st Sess., 1931-32, Pt. 4, 2127-61.
United States, Hearings, 72d Cong, had refused to pass loan authorizaThe Dartiguenave client-government
tions.
Under American Control, 119-20. Montague,
18. Millspaugh, Haiti
Haiti and the United States, p. 245. States and Haiti, Oct. 3, 1919; FR,
19. Protocol between the United
1919, II, 347-52.
20. Millspaugh, p. 120.
York World, Feb. 19, 1924. Balch,
21. NYT, June 23, 1920, p. 21. New Adviser, 1927, pp. 73-74.
pp. 44-45. Annual Report, Financial
May 31, 1922. 838.51/1308,
22. SD 838.51/1332, Munro memorandum, 838.51/1500%, "History of the
McIlhenny to Munro, June 1, 1922. Lucile Atcherson, Division of
Haitian Loan Negotiations, 1915-," by
Latin American Affairs, February, 1923. Beaumont (Shearman & Ster23. Ibid. Also SD 838.51/2801, Bank) Harefort to de la Rue, Feb. 8, 1934.
ling, representing National City
51/1308,
22. SD 838.51/1332, Munro memorandum, 838.51/1500%, "History of the
McIlhenny to Munro, June 1, 1922. Lucile Atcherson, Division of
Haitian Loan Negotiations, 1915-," by
Latin American Affairs, February, 1923. Beaumont (Shearman & Ster23. Ibid. Also SD 838.51/2801, Bank) Harefort to de la Rue, Feb. 8, 1934.
ling, representing National City --- Page 300 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 162-166
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic
24. U.S., Department of Commerce, Foreign Securities in 1931 (Trade
Commerce, American Underuriting of
Information Bulletin No. 802), p. 14.
Sale of Foreign
25. U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Finance, 72d Cong, 1st Sess.,
Bonds or Securities in the United States, Hearings,
1931-32, Pt. I, facing p. 162.
to W. R. Scott, Feb. 16, 1932. See
26. SD 838.51/2396, Cumberland Haitian minister to Washington, to
also 838.51/2376, Dantès Bellegarde,
statement made by Charles
Stimson, Jan. 15, 1932, commenting Bank, on to the Senate Finance ComMitchell, president of National City
loans
mittee to the effect that large profit spreads on Latin-American implied that this
officials. Bellegarde
included bribes to Latin-American exorbitant Series C profits.
might have accounted for
extérieure de la Républic dHaitl
27. Malval, La Politique financière Bank, successor to National City
depuis 1910, p. 97. First National City in 1970 that it no longer has records
Bank, informed me in 1967 and again
of National City Bank Haiti transactions. 186.
28. Chatelain, La Banque Nationale, p. Apr. 23, 1924. 838.516/225,
29. SD 838.516/223, Munro to L. Harrison, 838.51/1648, Cumberland to
C. E. Mitchell to Russell, Jan. 22, 1925.
depository for
Russell, Apr. 12, 1924. National City Bank, as privileged totaling $4
funds, paid 2.25% on Haitian deposits
Haitian government
Bank of Commerce offered 3.25% and 3.75%.
million while the National
30. FR, 1919, II, 347-51.
Aug. 12, 1921.
31. SD 838.51/1129, Mitchell to Francis Hughes, White, Mar. 23, 1923.
32. SD 838.51/1517, Munro to
Aug. 20, 1921.
33. SD 838.51/1132, Harding to Hughes, bonds, 1922; NA, Records of
34. National City Bank flier on Haitian
the Bureau of Insular Affairs, RG350, File No. Commerce," 27770-13. Bulletin of the
35. W. W. Cumberland, "Haiti's Foreign
1925), 1133-36.
Pan American Union, LIX, No. 11 (November,
36. Cumberland MSS, p. 181.
Pan American Union, LIX, No. 11,
37. Cumberland, Bulletin of Cumberland the
to W. R. Scott, Apr. 13, 1931.
1133-36. SD 838.51/2254%, Review of the Finances of the Republic of
38. Republic of Haiti, A
submitted to the American High ComHaiti; 1924-1930, by S. de la Rue,
Financial Adoiser, 1927,
missioner, Mar. 3, 1930, p. 27. Annual debt Report, reduction was the result of
p. 95. A portion of the supplemental stipulated in the three loan
supplemental amortization requirements
indicated that concontracts; ibid. (1930), p. 97. These requirements intended from the outset.
extractive fnancial policies were
servative,
38. Republic of Haiti, A
submitted to the American High ComHaiti; 1924-1930, by S. de la Rue,
Financial Adoiser, 1927,
missioner, Mar. 3, 1930, p. 27. Annual debt Report, reduction was the result of
p. 95. A portion of the supplemental stipulated in the three loan
supplemental amortization requirements
indicated that concontracts; ibid. (1930), p. 97. These requirements intended from the outset.
extractive fnancial policies were
servative, --- Page 301 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 166-170
39. Millspaugh, Haiti Under American
40. U.S., Department of State,
Control, 125.
sion . . . > p. 12.
Report of the President's Commis41. SD 838.51/2254% Cumberland to
had himself invested in Haitian bonds. Scott, Apr. 13, 1931. Cumberland
42. Annual Report, Financial Adviser,
43. Republic of Haiti, A Review
1927, p. 104.
44. Ibid., p. 29.
of Finances . . 2 p. 28.
45, Millspaugh, p. 120. My interview with Dana
N.J., Feb. 28, 1968.
G. Munro, Princeton,
46. Millspaugh, p. 156.
47. Annual Report, Financial Adviser,
"Annual Report of the Financial
1927, p. 95. SD 838.00/2440,
48. For a clear statement of this Adviser-General Receiver, 1927."
tary of State, see Huntington hypothesis by a former Assistant SecreWilson, "The
Foreign Investment, > Annals of the American Relation of Government to
Social Science, LXVIII (November,
Academy of Political and
49. SD 838.00/1859,
1916), 298-311,
50. Annual
Mayer to Welles, Jan. 31, 1921,
Report, Financial Adviser,
51. SD 838.00/2602, Munro to Francis 1927, p. 108.
838.153C73/23, "Matters in
White, Oct. 26, 1929. See also
Corporation and the
Controversy Between the Haytian
Haitian
American
tion to the Department of State, Government," submitted by the corpora52. Daniels to Lansing, Feb. July 22, 1920, 37 pp.
838.63/51, Munro to S. K. Hornbeck, 8, 1916; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632. SD
53. Ibid., A. N. Young
Oct. 5, 1922.
54. SD 838.00/1948, memorandum, Apr. 29, 1923.
Harding to Hughes,
referring to a proposed logwood concession. June 18, 1923. Harding was
notoriously involved in the Teapot Dome
Sinclair Oil interests were
55. "Wards of the United States: Notes scandal.
for Santo Domingo,
on What Our Country Is
Nicaragua, and Haiti," National
Doing
(July-December, 1916), 143-77, West
Geographic, XXX
tion Co., Haitian Investigation; Plains India Management and ConsultaYork: May 10, 1916), 8.
of Cul de Sac and Leogane
p.
(New
56. MacCorkle, The Monroe Doctrine in Its
Haiti, pp. 25-26.
Relation to the Republic of
57. West India Management and
tion, pp. 28-27. Roger W. Babson article Consultation in
Co., Haitian Investiga1915.
the New York Sun, Sept, 19,
58. West India Management and Consultation
tion, p. 26. J. W. DuB. Gould, General
Co., Haitian InvestigaReport on Haiti (Chicago: P. W.
Sac and Leogane
p.
(New
56. MacCorkle, The Monroe Doctrine in Its
Haiti, pp. 25-26.
Relation to the Republic of
57. West India Management and
tion, pp. 28-27. Roger W. Babson article Consultation in
Co., Haitian Investiga1915.
the New York Sun, Sept, 19,
58. West India Management and Consultation
tion, p. 26. J. W. DuB. Gould, General
Co., Haitian InvestigaReport on Haiti (Chicago: P. W. --- Page 302 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 170-174
Haiti, An American Slave Colony
Chapman, 1916), p. 11. G. Padmore,
"Memorandum in connection
(Moscow: Centrizdat, 1931), pp. 16-20. the Patriotic Union," Brigade Comwith the raising of a subscription by
RG127, Miscellaneous Reports,
mand, Port-au-Prince, Jan. 9, 1922; NA,
Haiti, Filecase 83. Financial Adviser, 1930, p. 117.
59. Annual Report,
of Economic Adviser Memorandum, Apr. 23,
60. SD 837.5538/7, Office P.
to Kellogg, Sept. 10, 1925. Pad1928. Also 838.5637/6MP, M. Dunlap
more, pp. 24-25.
1922, pp. 111-12, 749-58, 789-812.
61. Senate Hearings, L. Farnham; ibid., pp. 111-12.
62. Testimony of Roger
dans les campagnes d'Haiti: la
63. Candelon Rigaud, Promenades
1789-1928 (Paris:
Plaine de la Croix des Bouquets dite "Cul-de-Sac," 189-91. For a comprehensive
L'Edition Française Universelle, 192?), pp.
Investments of
description of American capital investments, see 214-16, Winkler, 274-78. See also
United States Capital in Latin America, pp.
H. P. Davis, Black Democracy, pp. 282-84.
Investments (Wash64. Cleona Lewis, Americd's Stake in International Wilhelm Koch, Beitràge zur
ington: Brookings Institution, 1938), p. 590.
Landschaftskunde und zur Geschichte der Lmichetensentinr 58-61. H. P.
Haiti (Hamburg: A. Preilipper, 1937), pp.
der Republik
282.
Davis, Black Democracy, p.
the
of Haiti," by First Marine
65. "Intelligence Monograph on Republic sections 401-300, 401-400; NA,
Brigade, Port-au-Prince, Sept. 8, 1930,
RG127, Subject File I, Haiti, Filecase 39.
282.
Black Democracy, 2d ed. rev. (1936), p.
66. H. P. Davis,
Survey of Haiti," by O. W. Barrett,
67. SD 838.61/21, "Agricultural
1922.
of Public Works, Geology of the
68. Republic of Haiti, Department John S. Brown, and Wilbur S. BurRepublic of Haiti, by P. Woodring,
bank (1924).
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic
69. U.S., Department of Commerce, (Trade Information Bulletin No.
Commerce, Haiti: An Economic Survey
264, 1924), pp. 13-16.
Commissioner, 1925, p. 7.
70. Annual Report, High
quoted in Cumberland MSS, pp. 209-10.
71. C. S. Butler, CAPT, USN, VII, No. 4, 556-70.
72. Millspaugh, Foreign Affairs,
CHAPTER 9
undated ca. 1920-21; NA, RG127, Miscellaneous
1. Note by Russell,
Records, Haiti, Filecase 83.
Trade Information Bulletin No.
Commerce, Haiti: An Economic Survey
264, 1924), pp. 13-16.
Commissioner, 1925, p. 7.
70. Annual Report, High
quoted in Cumberland MSS, pp. 209-10.
71. C. S. Butler, CAPT, USN, VII, No. 4, 556-70.
72. Millspaugh, Foreign Affairs,
CHAPTER 9
undated ca. 1920-21; NA, RG127, Miscellaneous
1. Note by Russell,
Records, Haiti, Filecase 83. --- Page 303 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 175-178
2. SD 838.04/10, Munro to Kellogg, Mar. 18, 1925.
auf
Wirachafsenteichlung und Landschaftscandel
3. Walter Gerling,
Haiti und Puerto Rico (Freiburg im
den west-indischen Inseln Jamaika,
142-44.
Breisgau: Verlag Sintermann, 1938), from pp. the district commander at Les
4. See especially monthly reports concern over the welfare of the popuCayes, 1921, which show constant NA, RG127, Report of Conditions,
lation and economic development;
Haiti, Z No. 1, Filecase 31.
Adviser, 1928, p. 76.
5. See Annual Report, Financial
Sept. 11, 1923. Also
6. SD 838.63/52, S. K. Hornbeck memorandum, Apr. 23, 1928.
837.5538/7, Office of Economic Adviser memorandum,
7. Cumberland MSS, pp. 196-200.
Dec. 19, 1927.
8. SD 838.51A/75, Russell to Kellogg,
9. Ibid.
Financial Adviser, 1926, p. 32. Republic of Haiti,
10. Annual Report,
1934, pp. 99-100. The latter
Annual Report of the Fiscal Representative,
Fiscal Repredocument will be referred to hereafter as Annual Report,
sentative (various years). in NYT, Oct. 16, 1924, p. 8.
11. Hughes quoted
extérieure de la Republic d'Haiti
12. Malval, La Politique financière Turnier, Les Etats-Unis et le marché
depuis 1910, pp. 67-68, 99-103. Alain
308-10.
haitien (Montreal: Imp. Saint-Joseph, 1955), pp.
99-100.
13. Annual Report, Fiscal Representative, 1934, pp.
25, 1925;
14. Freeman to W. M. Jardine, Secretary of Agriculture, and Agricultural June
EnNA, Records of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils,
gineering, RG45, Correspondence No. 4895. Division of Latin American
15. Interview with Dana G. Munro, chief,
Affairs in 1929, Princeton, N.J., Feb. 28, 1968. and Financial Progress
"Notable Commercial
16. W. W. Cumberland, American Union, LXI, No. 4 (April, 1927),
in Haiti," Bulletin of the Pan
"The American Occupation of Haiti,"
316-19. Raymond Leslie Buell,
Service, V, No. 15 (Oct. 2, 1929),
Foreign Policy Association Information
327-92.
Capital in Latin America, 102. See also
17. United Nations, Foreign Technical Assistance to Haiti, Mission to Haiti
United Nations, Mission of
(New York, 1949), p. 212.
VII, No. 4, 556-70. Also SD 838.52/
18. Millspaugh, Foreign Affairs, 1929.
German, Russell to Stimson, Jan. 21, Intervention in Operation," Foreign
19. Clarence K. Streit, "Haiti:
Afairs, VI, No. 4 (July, 1928), 615-32.
May 3, 1927, Annual Report,
20. SD 838.00/2313, Coolidge to Kellogg,
Mission of
(New York, 1949), p. 212.
VII, No. 4, 556-70. Also SD 838.52/
18. Millspaugh, Foreign Affairs, 1929.
German, Russell to Stimson, Jan. 21, Intervention in Operation," Foreign
19. Clarence K. Streit, "Haiti:
Afairs, VI, No. 4 (July, 1928), 615-32.
May 3, 1927, Annual Report,
20. SD 838.00/2313, Coolidge to Kellogg, --- Page 304 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 179-183
200. My interview with Harry
Financial Adviser, 1928, p. 76. Rigaud, p.
R. Long, Somerville, N.J., Feb. 3, 1968. May 5, 1927.
21. SD 838.00/2382, Morgan to Kellogg, de la propriété et de la famille au
22. Georges Séjourné, "Etablissement Revue de la Société d'Historie et de
lendemain de Tindépendance,"
1935), 9-32.
Géographie dHaiti, VI, No. 17 (January,
des travaux publique, The
23. Republic of Haiti, Direction générale
Public Works of Haiti (1931), p. 44.
May 5, 1927.
24. SD 838.00/2382, Morgan to Kellogg, Munro, May 6, 1929.
25. SD 838.52/87, W. R. Scott to
76.
26. Annual Report, Financial Adviser, 1928, p. 8958.
27. CR, 67th Cong, 2d Sess., 1922, LXII, Pt. 9, 20-26.
Human Organization, XI, No. 4,
28. Erasmus,
Financial Adviser, 1927, p. 53.
29. Annual Report,
of conversation with Freeman,
30. SD 838.42/68, Scott memorandum
June 28, 1929.
VI, No. 4, 615-32. Report of District Com31. Streit, Foreign Affairs, Gendarmerie d'Haiti, Sept. 1, 1921; NA,
mander, Aux Cayes, to chief, Haiti, Z No. 1, Filecase 31.
RG127, Report of Conditions,
Report of the President's Commis32. U.S., Department of State,
sion . . 9 p. 7.
Sept. 29, 1920; FR, 1921, II, 188-90.
33. Colby to Bailly-Blanchard, Problems in Haiti," Current History, XIII
Samuel Guy Inman, "Hard
Association Information Service,
(1921), 338-42. Buell, Foreign Policy
V, No. 15, 364.
the
of Haiti," by the First
34. "Intelligence Monograph on
Republic 1930, sections 204-100, 206-200;
Marine Brigade, Port-au-Prince, Sept. 8,
NA, RG127, Subject File I, Haiti, Filecase 39.
83. Also Cumberland,
35. Annual Report, Financial Adviser, 1927, p. 316-19.
Bulletin of the Pan American Union, LXI, No. 4, 443.
Journal of Negro History, XV, No. 4,
36. Logan,
of State, Report of the United States Commission
37. U.S., Department October 1, 1930 (1931), p. 15. Forbes Commison Education in Haiti,
F. Freeman, Port-au-Prince, Mar. 13,
sion interview with Dr. George
1930; Forbes Commission Papers, Box 1.
6-7.
38. Annual Report, High Commissioner, Nationale 1925, pp. de la Production Agri39. Ibid. République d'Haiti, Service
Annuel, 1931-1932, pp. 1-6.
cole et de l'Enseignement Rural, Thaw Rapport with Freeman, Oct. 2, 1926.
SD 838.42/38, conversation B. History, XV, No. 4, 401-60. La Presse
40. Logan, Journal of Negro Also H. P. Davis, "Haiti After 1936: So
(Port-au-Prince), Apr. 25, 1930.
ri39. Ibid. République d'Haiti, Service
Annuel, 1931-1932, pp. 1-6.
cole et de l'Enseignement Rural, Thaw Rapport with Freeman, Oct. 2, 1926.
SD 838.42/38, conversation B. History, XV, No. 4, 401-60. La Presse
40. Logan, Journal of Negro Also H. P. Davis, "Haiti After 1936: So
(Port-au-Prince), Apr. 25, 1930. --- Page 305 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 183-190
1930),
Outlook, CLIV, No. 12 (Mar. 19,
Far Intervention Has Failed,"
443 ff.
interview with Freeman, Mar. 13, 1930; Forbes
41. Forbes Commission
Commission Papers, Box 1.
Nov. 27, 1929. Eve E. Sorensen
42. SD 838.42/77, Russell to Stimson,
in CR, 71st Cong, 2d
article, New York World, Dec. 15, 1929, quoted were $25 per month, so
Sess., 1929, LXXII, Pt. 1, 913-14. Scholarships their relative munificence, but
Sorensen was undoubtedly exaggerating
this was still a very attractive sum. speech, Mar. 25, 1925.
43. SD 838.4237/64, Freeman
Scott memorandum of
44. For enrollment statistics, see SD 838.42/68,
conversation with Freeman, June 28, 1929.
Feb. 28, 1968.
45. My interview with Munro, Princeton, N.J, of conversation with Farn46. SD 838.6113/80, Thurston memorandum
ham, Mar. 17, 1931.
memorandum of conversation with Guy
47. SD 838.5045/34, Scott
of the Financial Adviser, Dec. 18, 1929.
Wadsworth, assistant in the Office
XV, No. 4, 401-60. Also SD
48. Logan, Journal of Negro History, 18, 1930. Eve E. Sorensen article
838.5045/46, Hoover to J. P. Cotton, Jan. in CR, 71st Cong, 2d Sess.,
in New York World, Dec. 15, 1929, quoted
Russell to Cotton, Feb.
1929, LXXII, Pt. I, 913-14. Also SD 838.5045/47,
4, 1930.
Munro to Cotton, Feb. 20, 1930.
49. SD 838.42 Moton Commission/12, Feb. 28, 1968.
My Munro interview, Princeton, N.J.,
Grummon to Stimson, July 7,
50. SD 838.42 Moton Commission/62,
1930.
Annual Report of the American
51. U.S., Department of State, Eighth Haiti, 1929 (Washington, 1930).
High Commissioner at Port-au-Prince,
CHAPTER 10
1. Annual Report, High Commissioner, 1922-29.
2. Cumberland MSS, pp. 158, and 164. Mar. 26, 1927, p. 9. Also Le Moniteur
3. NYT, Mar. 13, 1927, p. 1, Grew to Russell, Mar. 9, 1927; FR, 1927,
(Port-au-Prince), Mar. 17, 1927.
III, 81-82.
215-17. See also J. S. Turrill, COL, USMC,
4. Cumberland MSS, pp.
Marine Corps, Mar. 14, 1927; Lejeune
to John A. Lejeune, Commandant,
MSS, Container 4. XXXV, No. 5 (May, 1928), 152 ff.
5. Wood, Crisis,
Tribunals in Haiti," by D. G.
6. SD 838.203/2, "The Use of Military
Munro, Dec. 11, 1929.
82.
215-17. See also J. S. Turrill, COL, USMC,
4. Cumberland MSS, pp.
Marine Corps, Mar. 14, 1927; Lejeune
to John A. Lejeune, Commandant,
MSS, Container 4. XXXV, No. 5 (May, 1928), 152 ff.
5. Wood, Crisis,
Tribunals in Haiti," by D. G.
6. SD 838.203/2, "The Use of Military
Munro, Dec. 11, 1929. --- Page 306 ---
7. Russell
NOTES TO PAGES 191-197
8.
to Kellogg, Jan. 7, 1926; FR, 1926, II, 396.
9. Millspaugh, SD
Current History, XXXI, No. 5 (Feb., 1930),
838.51A/154, de la Rue to W. R.
919-26.
10. SD 838.00/2319, Russell to
Castle, May 8, 1929.
11. Ibid., S. W. Morgan to Francis Kellogg, May 14, 1927.
12. Russell to Kellogg, June 1, 1927; White, June 14, 1927.
13. Kellogg to Christian
FR, 1927, III, 48-50.
14. SD 838.011/89, W. M. Gross, Aug. 16, 1927; ibid., 65-66.
27, 1927.
Wilson to Francis White and Morgan, June
15. Ibid.
16. Annual Report, High
17. Stimson to Russell, Apr. Commissioner, 1928, p. 2.
Stimson, Mar. 14, 1929; ibid., 11, 1929; FR, 1929, III, p. 170. Russell to
18. SD
pp. 166-69,
to Russell, 838.00/2519%, Aug. 22, 1929; Munro to Francis White, Apr. 23, 1929. Stimson
14, 1929; tbid.,
166-69, FR, 1929, III, 171-72. Russell to
pp.
Stimson, Mar.
19. SD 838.00/2519%, Munro to White,
20. La Presse
Apr. 23, 1929.
lation of Borno (Port-au-Prince), circular of Oct. Nov. 4, 1929, "English Section," B transscheduled for Jan. 10, 1930.
6, 1929, canceling legislative elections
21. SD 838.42/40, Russell to the Nation,
22. Foster, Independent,
Jan. 24, 1927.
No. 5, (June, 1928), 152. CXXI, No. 4080, 128-30. Wood, Crisis, XXXV
23. SD 838.00/2354, Gross Bellegarde, to
L'Occupation américaine . > 14n.
24. Buell, Foreign
Kellogg, July 13, 1927.
385. Also Le Nouvelliste Policy Asociation Information Service, V, No. 15,
Ruhl, "Muzzling Editors in (Port-au-Prince), Haiti,"
July 4, 1929. See also Arthur
1925), 468-71,
American Mercury, V, No. 20 (August,
25. File on press censorship, 1916-21;
28. 838.00/1894, Hughes to Russell, Oct. MARCORPS HQ Haiti MSS, Box
Munro to Francis White, Dec.
4, 1922. Also, 838.00/1999,
26. Republic of
15, 1925.
Nouvelliste,
Haiti, Garde d'Haiti, Annual
Nov. 8 and 14, 1929. "Student
Report, 1929, p. 7. Le
Haiti MSS, Box 29.
Strike" file; MARCORPS HQ
27. Forbes Commission interview with
Commission Papers, Box 1.
Freeman, Mar. 13, 1930; Forbes
28. John H. Russell, "A Marine Looks Back
(n.d., ca. 1934), 27; MARCORPS
on Haiti," unpublished MS
High Commissioner, 1929, 6. MUS, MS File 4-50. Annual
29. Le Nouvelliste, Oct. p.
Report,
30. Russell to
9-Dec. 4, 1929.
Stimson, Nov. 25, 27, 29, 1929; FR, 1929, III, 178-82,
, Mar. 13, 1930; Forbes
28. John H. Russell, "A Marine Looks Back
(n.d., ca. 1934), 27; MARCORPS
on Haiti," unpublished MS
High Commissioner, 1929, 6. MUS, MS File 4-50. Annual
29. Le Nouvelliste, Oct. p.
Report,
30. Russell to
9-Dec. 4, 1929.
Stimson, Nov. 25, 27, 29, 1929; FR, 1929, III, 178-82, --- Page 307 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 197-202
31. Russell to Stimson, Dec. 2 and 8,
32. Garde d'Haiti, Annual
1929; ibid., pp. 174, 188.
33. SD
Report, 1929, pp. 7-8.
838.5045/37, de la Rue to W. R. Castle, Dec.
838.5045/34, Scott conversation with
10, 1929. See also
34. C. F. Wood to
Guy Wadsworth, Dec. 18, 1929.
838.00/2673, personal Stimson, letter Dec. 4, 1929; FR, 1929, III, 190. Also SD
mother, Dec. 8, 1929. Also from Margaret Scoville, Cap Haitien, to her
Also "Student Strike" file; MARCORPS 838.5045/12, Russell to Stimson, Dec. 7, 1929.
35. SD 838.5045/21,
HQ Haiti MSS, Box 29.
mandant, Dec, 4, 1929. Brigade Commander to Major General Com36. Le Nouvelliste, Dec. 5 and 16, 1929.
Bulletin, VI, No. 12 (December,
Republic of Haiti, Monthly
37. SD 838.5045 /4, Stimson to 1929), 1.
son to Russell, Dec. 5, 1929.
Russell, Dec. 4, 1929. 838.00/2613, Stim38. SD 838.00/2615A, Stimson to
39. Garde d'Haiti, Annual
Russell, Dec. 4, 1929.
40. Annual Report,
Report, 1929, p. 8.
High
"The Massacre at Aux Cayes," Commissioner, 1929, p. 10. L. J. De Bekker,
308-10. Also Russell to
Nation, CXXX, No. 3376 (Mar. 19,
41. Account of Lester Stimson, Dec. 5, 1929; FR, 1929, II, 190-91. 1930),
USMC, quoted in New York N. Gillaspey and William T. Myers, privates,
42. NYT, Dec. 8, 1929, 2. Telegram, Dec. 9, 1929, p. 9.
43. Ibid. Also SD
p.
Russell added that 838.5045/6, Russell to Stimson, Dec. 6, 1929, in which
revolt. >> Also SD 838.5045/47, "Magistrate at Cayes reported whole countryside in
44. De Bekker, Nation, Russell to Cotton, Feb. 4, 1930.
45. SD 838.5045/45, CXXX, No. 3376 (March 19, 1930), 308-10.
46, Hoover to Cotton, Cotton to Francis White, Jan. 20, 1930.
Jan. 18, 1930. Also SD
838.5045/
ton, Feb. 4, 1930.
838.5045/47, Russell to Cot46. Ibid.
47. Nation, CXXX, No. 3386
48. Hoover
(May 28, 1930), 612.
Telegram, Dec. message 3,
to Congress, Dec. 3, 1929, quoted in New York
Latin-American 1929, p. 8. Alexander De Conde, Herbert Hoover's
49. SD 838.00/2027, Policy (Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 1951), p. 79.
50. Stimson to
Stimson to Russell, Dec. 9, 1929.
51. NYT, Dec. Russell, Dec. 9, 1929; FR, 1929, III, 198-99,
52.
13, 1929, p. 13.
Russell to Stimson, Dec. 9, 1929; FR,
53. SD 838.5045/38, Munro to
1929, III, 197-98.
54. SD 838.5045/39, Stimson White, Dec. 26, 1929.
55. Annual Report,
to Russell, Dec. 31, 1929.
High Commissioner, 1928, p. 1.
9, 1929; FR, 1929, III, 198-99,
52.
13, 1929, p. 13.
Russell to Stimson, Dec. 9, 1929; FR,
53. SD 838.5045/38, Munro to
1929, III, 197-98.
54. SD 838.5045/39, Stimson White, Dec. 26, 1929.
55. Annual Report,
to Russell, Dec. 31, 1929.
High Commissioner, 1928, p. 1. --- Page 308 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 202-205
1929, p. 7. See also SD
56. Annual Report, High Commissioner, 1929.
838.42/74, Russell to Stimson, Nov. 29,
9.
57. Annual Report, High Commissioner, Russell 1929, to p. Stimson, Jan. 7, 1930.
58. SD 838.00 General Conditions/37, 19, 1930. Also Russell to StimAlso 838.00/2802, Russell to Stimson, Apr.
son, Feb. 12, 1930; 838.113/19.
28; MARCORPS MUS,
"A Marine Looks Back on Haiti," p.
59. Russell,
MS File 4-50.
reports on individual
60. For a sampling of over
intelligence 1-250, 66-HE-108-HC, 251-450,
Haitians, see NA, RG127, Filecases 76-JBTP Au P 107-SN, and 81.
1-JFF-29-LS, 30-PCJ-65-VJ, 6-10-1-6-17-1, 1. See also New York Telegram, Dec. 14,
61. NYT, Dec. 15, 1929, p.
1929, and Le Nouvelliste, Dec. 16, 1929. LXXII, Pt. 1, 316-18, 677-78, 917.
62. CR, 71st Cong, 2d Sess., 1929,
1929.
Also NYT, Dec. 13 (p. 30) and 19 (p. 3),
Dec. 18, 1929;
Robert Crosser (D-Ohio),
63. Speech by Representative 1929, LXXII, Pt. 1, 910.
CR, 71st Cong, 2d Sess.,
Huddleston (D-Ala.), Dec. 9,
George
64. Speech by Representative
1929; tbid., pp. 317-18.
65. Ibid., pp. 817, 922.
CXXVI, No. 3282 (June 6, 1928),
66. "What is News in Haiti?" Nation,
Feb. 6, 1930. John H.
627. SD 838.00/2735, L. J. De Bekker to Hoover,
officer during
CAPT, USMC, had been a Marine publicity the Nation,
Craige, War I. See also letter of Don Glassman published in
World
1930), 734, which states that the Commandant
CXXX, No. 3390 (June 25,
AP
was an honest
of the Garde (Evans), who served as correspondent,
person with previous newspaper experience. Digest, CIII, No. 12 (Dec. 21, 1929),
67. "The Hate of Haiti," Literary
6-7. Baltimore Sun, Dec. 8, 1929. 1f. M. Black, Jr. (D-N.Y.), Dec. 18,
68. Speech by Representative 1929, Loring LXXII, Pt. 1, 917.
1929; CR, 71st Cong, 2d Sess.,
LXXXI (1920),
Debates (Commons),
69. Great Britain, Parliamentary
(1920), p. 1170.
p. 1938; LXXXIV (1920), p. 1665; LXXXVIII America," Atlantic Monthly,
70. Samuel Guy Inman, "Imperialistic
CXXXIV, No. 1 (July, 1924), 107-16. 1924 and 838.00/2096, Mar. 29, 1925,
71. SD 838.00/2041, Sept. 26,
clippings. Also NYT, June 21,
from Paris enclosing French newspaper
1929, p. 1.
3, and Dec. 11, 1929, p. 4. Also SD 838.00/
72. NYT, Dec. 10, 1929, p.
Dec. 12, 1929.
2684, Norman Armour (Paris) to Stimson, 1929, 13, quoted in Donald B.
73. Manchester Guardian, Dec. 9,
p.
1925,
71. SD 838.00/2041, Sept. 26,
clippings. Also NYT, June 21,
from Paris enclosing French newspaper
1929, p. 1.
3, and Dec. 11, 1929, p. 4. Also SD 838.00/
72. NYT, Dec. 10, 1929, p.
Dec. 12, 1929.
2684, Norman Armour (Paris) to Stimson, 1929, 13, quoted in Donald B.
73. Manchester Guardian, Dec. 9,
p. --- Page 309 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 205-210
Withdrawal of the United States from Haiti, 1929-1934,"
Cooper, "The
Studies, V, No. 1 (January, 1963), 83-101.
Journal of Inter-American Dec. 10, 1929, enclosed in SD 838.00/2648,
74. Manchester Guardian,
Ray Atherton to Stimson, Dec. 10, 1929.
to Stimson, Jan. 4, 1930.
75. SD 838.00/2694, F. P. Hibbard (Bolivia) to Stimson, Jan. 12, 1930.
Also 838.00/2716, H. F. Guggenheim (Cuba) to Stimson, Jan. 21, 1930.
Also 838.00/2721, H. V. Johnson (Mexico)
Jan. 14, 1930.
Also 838.00/2723, F. L. Mayer (Peru) to Stimson,
76. Hoover quoted in NYT, Feb. 5, 1930, p. 1.
CHAPTER 11
with Dana G. Munro, chief, Division of Latin Ameri1. My interview
Princeton, N.J., Feb. 28, 1968. Also SD 838.00/
can Affairs (1929-30), Francis White, Apr. 23, 1929.
2519%, Munro to
N.J., Feb. 28, 1968. The Haitian-Ameri2. Munro interview, Princeton,
with treaty offiCo. had been embroiled in a lengthy dispute
can Sugar
Stimson to Russell, Nov. 11, 1929.
cials. See also SD 838.00/2604, Allen White's America (New York: Henry
8. Walter Johnson, William
Holt & Co., 1947), pp. 417-18. Forbes, Second Series, III, 1930-1934,"
4. "Journal of W. Cameron
to hereafter as Forbes,
p. 3; LC, W. Cameron Forbes Papers (referred
"Journal").
2. Also "Report of the President's Commis5. NYT, Mar. 1, 1930, p. Conditions in the Republic of Haiti, 1930,"
sion for Study and Review of
FR, 1930, III, 217-37.
Mar. 6, 1930, quoted in W. John6. Le Nouvelliste (Port-au-Prince), 423. See also Forbes, "Journal,"
William Allen White's America, p.
son, Second Series, III, 31.
Mar. 26, 1930.
7. La Presse (Port-au-Prince), Second Series, III, 32, 36.
8. Forbes, "Journal,"
Russell to Stimson,
9. SD 838.00 Commission of Investigation/108,
Mar. 17, 1930.
interview with Freeman, Mar. 13, 1930; Forbes
10. Forbes Commission
Commission Papers, Box 1.
"Confidential
11. Ibid. SD 838.00 Commission of Investigation/132, situation in Haiti,"
Mernorandum, Steps taken to solve acute political
"W. Cameron
Mar. 26, 1930. See also Robert M. Spector,
by Forbes,
Additional Light on the Genesis of the 'Good Neighbor
Forbes in Haiti: Studies, VI, No. 2 (July, 1966), 28-45.
Policy," Caribbean
of Investigation/71, Russell to Stimson,
12. SD 838.00 Commission
Mar. 7, 1930.
.
"Confidential
11. Ibid. SD 838.00 Commission of Investigation/132, situation in Haiti,"
Mernorandum, Steps taken to solve acute political
"W. Cameron
Mar. 26, 1930. See also Robert M. Spector,
by Forbes,
Additional Light on the Genesis of the 'Good Neighbor
Forbes in Haiti: Studies, VI, No. 2 (July, 1966), 28-45.
Policy," Caribbean
of Investigation/71, Russell to Stimson,
12. SD 838.00 Commission
Mar. 7, 1930. --- Page 310 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 210-217
Second Series, III, 29, 40.
13. Forbes, "Journal,"
William Allen White's America,
14. White quoted in Walter Johnson,
p. 421.
R. Scott to Munro, Mar. 29, 1929. Russell to
15. SD 838.00 / /2511, W.
172-73.
Stimson, Oct. 24, 1929; FR, 1929, III,
Forbes memorandum,
16. SD 838.00 Commission of Investigation/132,
Mar. 26, 1930.
Secret Agent No. 2 (Paul), Reports No. 20,
17. Intelligence Reports,
12, 1930; MARCORPS HQ Haiti MSS,
Jan. 6, 1930, and No. 21, Jan.
Box 26.
of State J. P. Cotton, Apr. 17, 1930,
18. Forbes to Acting Secretary Second Series, III, 87-88.
quoted in Forbes, "Journal,"
Forbes memorandum,
19. SD 838.00 Commission of Investigation/132, 4.
Mar. 26, 1930. Also NYT, Mar. 11, 1930, p.
14, 1930. Cotton
Cotton to Russell, Apr.
20. SD 838.00 Elections/64, FR, 1930, III, 245-46.
to Russell, Apr. 11, 1930;
Report of the President's Commisston
21. U.S., Department of State,
in the Republic of Haiti, 1930.
for Study and Review of Conditions
Reprinted in FR, 1930, III, 217-37.
II, 68. Forbes letter to David
22. Forbes, "Journal," Second series,
Gray, Oct. 28, 1931; ibid., pp. 103-6.
III, 69, 103-6. Forbes later
23. Forbes, "Journal," Second Series,
of the Marine
supported Russell when he was promoted to Commandant senator), Dec. 23, 1933;
Corps in 1934; Forbes to David I. Walsh (U.S.
ibid., p. 124.
July 10, 1930; White MSS, Box 1.
24. White to Stimson,
25. NYT, Mar. 22, 1930, p. 3.
1930, III, 217-37.
of the President's Commission . . "; FR,
26. "Report
27. Ibid.
of conversation with
28. SD 838.5045/34, W. R. Scott memorandum of the Financial Adviser, Dec. 18,
Wadsworth, assistant in the Office
Guy
1929.
Russell to Stimson, May 28, 1930.
29. SD 838.00/2636%,
1930; Forbes Commission Papers, Box 4,
30. Russell to Forbes, Mar. 13, Russell to Stimson, May 26, 1930.
Russell fle. Also SD 838.00/2836%,
FR, 1930, III, 217of the President's Commission . ";
31. "Report
Second Series, III, 63.
37. Forbes, "Journal,"
23, 1930, and Forbes to Irwin, Apr. 10, 1930;
32. Irwin to Forbes, June
ibid., 76-80, 98A-98B.
MARCORPS MUS, MS
"A Marine Looks Back on Haiti,"
33. Russell,
File 4-50.
, 1930.
Russell fle. Also SD 838.00/2836%,
FR, 1930, III, 217of the President's Commission . ";
31. "Report
Second Series, III, 63.
37. Forbes, "Journal,"
23, 1930, and Forbes to Irwin, Apr. 10, 1930;
32. Irwin to Forbes, June
ibid., 76-80, 98A-98B.
MARCORPS MUS, MS
"A Marine Looks Back on Haiti,"
33. Russell,
File 4-50. --- Page 311 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 217-221
Thomas S.
D. P. Calixte, Garde d'Haiti, by
34. Report on Captain
Département du Centre; Clarke to
Clarke, MAJ, USMC, Commander, 1930, MARCORPS HQ Haiti MSS,
Commandant, Garde d'Haiti, May 9,
Box 22, Headquarters Garde d'Haiti fle. the Dominican Republic and
35. Goldwert, The Constabulary in
Nicaragua, p. vii.
USMC, "Salient Haitian Facts," Marine
36. Frank E. Evans, COL,
1931), 14 ff. Also SD 838.00/2958,
Corps Gazette, XV, No. 4 (February, May 8, 1931.
Stimson to W. H. King (U.S. senator), the Finances of the Republic of
37. Republic of Haiti, A Review of
de la Rue to Castle, Jan. 7,
Haiti; 1924-1930, 31-32. SD 838.51A/188,
1931.
of Conversation with Franklin D. Roosevelt, Mon38. "Memorandum
Park, New York," Diary No. 25, Henry L.
day, January 9 [1933], at Hyde
Stimson Papers, Yale Univ. Library. On Active Service in Peace and
39. Ibid. See also Henry L. Stimson,
184.
War (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947), p. 29, 1930. Republic of Haiti,
40. SD 838.48/53, Russell to Stimson, Apr. 2-3.
Monthly Bulletin, VII, No. 4 (April, 1930), Dec. 27, 1930. Also SD 838.5045/
41. SD 838.5045/53, Wood to Stimson, Also SD 838.5045/62, Scott memo57, Munro to Stimson, Dec. 30, 1930.
randum, Dec. 31, 1930.
Grummon to Stimson, Oct. 17, 1930.
42. SD 838.00 Elections/103,
entry for Mar. 26, 1934; NA, RG127,
43. Intelligence Report on Jolibois,
Filecase 1-JJF-29-LS, fle 1-JJF. 1930; FR, 1930, III, 255-61.
44. Stimson to Munro, Oct. 18, USMC, to Francis White, Mar. 5, 1931;
45. Louis McCarty Little, COL,
White MSS, Box 12.
Dec. 22, 1930; FR, 1930, III, 286-73.
46. Munro to Stimson,
6.
47. NYT, June 28, 1931, Pt. III, p.
2.
48. Annual Report, Financial Adviser, 1931, p. 2, 23, 25. Also Republic
49. Ibid., pp. 45-46. Also ibid. (1932), pp. Publique, The Public Works
of Haiti, Direction Générale des Travaux
of Haiti (1931), pp. 49, 58-59. Nadler, and Harry C. Sauvain, Amer50. John T. Madden, Marcus Nation (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1987),
ica's Experience as a Creditor
p. 308.
"Policy Concerning Financial Control in Haiti,"
51. SD 838.51/2364%,
by W. R. Scott, Nov. 19, 1931. 24, 1931; FR, 1931, II, 406-7. Also Munro
52. Munro to Stimson, Jan. White MSS, Box 14.
to Francis White, Jan. 9, 1931;
50. John T. Madden, Marcus Nation (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1987),
ica's Experience as a Creditor
p. 308.
"Policy Concerning Financial Control in Haiti,"
51. SD 838.51/2364%,
by W. R. Scott, Nov. 19, 1931. 24, 1931; FR, 1931, II, 406-7. Also Munro
52. Munro to Stimson, Jan. White MSS, Box 14.
to Francis White, Jan. 9, 1931; --- Page 312 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 222-227
Munro to Stimson, June 3, 1931.
53. SD 838.00/2978, June 22, 1931; FR, 1931, II, 484-85.
54. Stimson to Munro, Mar. 5, 1931; White MSS, Box 5.
55. White to Munro,
Concerning Financial Control in Haiti,"
56. SD 838.51/2364%, "Policy
change was made in a conference
by Scott, Nov. 19, 1931. The policy 1931.
with the Secretary of State on Mar. 11,
of Haiti Fraught With
57. Ernest Gruening, "Our 'Disoccupation'" 3.
Problems," >> NYT, Mar. 29, 1931, Pt. IX, p.
Many
Scott to W. C. Thurston, Oct. 17, 1930.
58. SD 838.6463/27,
Oct. 28, 1930. Also SD 838.77/
59. SD 838.77/389, Scott to Thurston, Also SD 838.77/400, Munro to
393, Munro to Stimson, May 8, 1931.
de la Rue to Stimson, Oct.
Stimson, Nov. 19, 1931. Also SD 838.77/390,
16, 1930.
Munro to Stimson, May 8, 1931. Also
60. Ibid. Also SD 838.77/393,
Haitian Railways, Nov. 28, 1930.
SD 838.77/391, D. R. Heath report on
Box 14.
Also Munro to White, Mar. 30, 1932; White MSS, 8, 1932.
61. SD 838.51/2569, White to Armour, the Dec. Division of Latin American
62. "Memorandum by the Chief of
FR, 1933, V, 785-38.
Affairs," by Edwin C. Wilson, ca. Apr. 3, 1933; conversation between W. W.
63. SD 838.00/2852, "Conditions in Haiti,"
Lancaster and White, July 17, 1930. Hull, Nov. 10, 1933.
64. SD 838.516/274, J. H. Perkins to
1935, IV, 724-28.
65. Hull to Francis White, June 28, 1935; FR, Feb. 28, 1933; NA, Recmemorandum by E. C. Wilson,
of
66. "Haiti,"
to the Seventh International Conference
ords of the U.S. delegation E190, Box 1, "Survey: Haiti."
American States, 1933, RG43,
1932; FR, 1932, V, 693-94. Munro to
67. Armour to Stimson, Nov. 19,
signed Sept. 3; ibid., pp. 671-78.
Stimson, Sept. 14, 1932, enclosing treaty 1933; FR, 1933, V, 710-13:
68. Armour to Stimson, Jan. 2,
ibid., 713-14. Armour to Hull,
69. Stimson to Armour, Jan. 9, 1933;
pp.
June 5, 1933; ibid., pp. 745-46. 1933; Edgar B. Nixon (ed.), Franklin
70. Phillips to Roosevelt, Aug, 3,
Mass.: Belknap Press,
D. Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs (Cambridge,
1969), I, 343.
Series No. 46: Accord of Aug. 7, 1933; FR,
71. Executive Agreement
1933, V, 755-61.
(Fort-au-Prince), Aug. 10, 1933. Armour to
72. L'Action Nationale
762-63. Also SD 838.51/2721, Armour to
Hull, Aug. 9, 1933; FR, 1933, V, Un Désastre; Paccord du 7 aolt 1933
Hull, Oct. 19, 1933. Emile Cauvin,
LImprimerie Haîtienne (ed.),
(Port-au-Prince: Imp. Haitienne, 1933).
-61.
(Fort-au-Prince), Aug. 10, 1933. Armour to
72. L'Action Nationale
762-63. Also SD 838.51/2721, Armour to
Hull, Aug. 9, 1933; FR, 1933, V, Un Désastre; Paccord du 7 aolt 1933
Hull, Oct. 19, 1933. Emile Cauvin,
LImprimerie Haîtienne (ed.),
(Port-au-Prince: Imp. Haitienne, 1933). --- Page 313 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 227-232
Imp. Haitienne, 1934). Also SD 838.51/
Pour Thistoire (Port-au-Prince: Nov. 29, 1933.
2747%, G. A. Drew to Hull,
Out of Haiti," Nation,
73. Ernest Gruening, "At Last We're Getting 700-1. Also SD 838.51/2750,
CXXXVIII, No. 3598 (June 20, 1934), Civil Liberties Union, to W. Phillips,
Harry F. Ward, Secretary, American
Dec. 1, 1933.
Nov. 16, 1933, and Roosevelt to Vincent,
74. Vincent to Roosevelt,
767-68.
Nov. 29, 1933; FR, 1933, V, 764-66, 1933, quoted in Bellegarde, Des75. Gruening to Bellegarde, Sept. 14,
salines a parlé, pp. 125-27. Memoirs of Cordell Hull (New York: Macmillan
76. Cordell Hull, The
Co., 1948), I, 333.
Armour to Hull, Dec. 4, 1933, enclosing Barau to
77. SD 838.51/2755,
Hull to State Department, Dec.
Vincent, Nov. 22, 1933. SD 838.51/2785, Dec. 1, 1933; FR, 1933, V, 770-71.
5, 1933. See also Phillips to Armour,
clippings of Dec. 1,
78. SD 838.51/2752 enclosing Haitian newspaper Dec. 14, 1933; FR, 1933, V,
1933. Armour to Acting Secretary of State,
775-76.
Barau to Hull, Dec. 5, 1933, and Hull to Barau,
79. SD 838.51/2751%,
Dec. 9, 1933.
with Albert Blanchet, Haitian
80. Hull memorandum of conversation LC, Cordell Hull Papers. NYT,
minister to Washington, Jan. 27, 1934;
Jan. 17, 1934, p. 12.
"Memorandum by the Chief of the Division of
81, Edwin C. Wilson,
3, 1933; FR, 1933, V, 735-38.
Latin American Affairs," ca. April
Nov. 22, 1933.
82. SD 838.51/2788, Hull to State Council, Department, Inc., Annual Report, 1935
83. Foreign Bondholders Protective Also SD 838.516/387, White to Hull,
(New York, 1936P), pp. 124, 126.
July 15, 1935.
Armour to Hull, Aug. 30, 1934, enclosing transla84. SD 838.00/3259,
Aug, 24, 1934.
tion of article from Le Temps (Port-au-Prince), "The Haitian Pilot Plant,"
85. Roosevelt quoted in Frank Freidel,
Politics, I, No. 2 (March, 1944), 43-45. SD 838.00/3232, Armour to Hull,
86. NYT, Aug. 15, 1934, p. 5. Also
Aug. 15, 1934.
CHAPTER 12
American Policy in Nicaragua (New York:
1. Henry L. Stimson, 1927), pp. 108, 115.
Charles Scribner's Sons,
USMC (Ret.), "Haiti: A Case Study in
2. Robert D. Heinl, Jr., COL, No. 20 (May 16, 1964), 15-21.
Freedom," New Republic, CL,
/3232, Armour to Hull,
86. NYT, Aug. 15, 1934, p. 5. Also
Aug. 15, 1934.
CHAPTER 12
American Policy in Nicaragua (New York:
1. Henry L. Stimson, 1927), pp. 108, 115.
Charles Scribner's Sons,
USMC (Ret.), "Haiti: A Case Study in
2. Robert D. Heinl, Jr., COL, No. 20 (May 16, 1964), 15-21.
Freedom," New Republic, CL, --- Page 314 ---
NOTES TO PAGES 232-237
Mar. 30, 1932; White MSS, Box 14.
3. Munro to Francis White,
Assistance to Haiti, Mission
4. United Nations, Mission of Technical
to Haiti, p. 218.
Haiti of the Sixties, Object of International Con5. Leslie F. Manigat,
Center of Foreign Policy Research, 1964),
cern (Washington: Washington
p. 27.
Association Information Service, V, No. 15
6. Buell, Foreign Policy
(Oct. 2, 1929), 327-92.
USMC (Ret.), "Haiti: Impacts of
7. Robert Debs Heinl, Jr., COL, unpublished paper presented to
American Occupation, 1915-1934," Faculty Club, Apr. 18, 1969.
faculty seminar at Harvard University to W. R. Scott, Feb. 16, 1932.
8. SD 838.51/2396, Cumberland
1934, p. 77.
9. Annual Report, Fiscal Representative, in the Dominican Republic and
10. Goldwert, The Constabulary
Nicaragua, pp. vi-vii. Face au peuple et a Thistoire (Port-au-Prince:
11. François Duvalier,
Imp. de l'Etat, 1961), pp. 121-26.
Parenton, "Class Structure and
12. Roland Wingfield and Vernon Social J. Forces, XLIII, No. 3 (May,
Class Conflict in Haitian Society,"
1965), 338-47.
Bouchereau, Haiti et ses femmes (Port-au13. Madeleine Sylvain
s 1957), pp. 79-84. Madeleine G. Sylvain,
Prince: Imp. "Les Presses Libres, Bulletin of the Pan American Union,
"The Feminist Movement in Haiti,"
LXXIII, No. 6 (June, 1939), 315-21. Adviser, 1931, p. 44.
14. Annual Report, Financial
Valley, p. 12.
15. Herskovits, Life in a Haitian
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interview with Ernest Angell, New York City,
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counsel
the Haiti-Santo
July 28, 1970. Mr. Angell was and the representing NAACP before the 1921-22
Domingo Independence Society
Senate Hearings on the Occupation. with Ernest Gruening, WashingGruening, Ernest. Personal interview former U.S. senator from Alaska,
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was managing editor of the Nation
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the most dynamic and persistent critics
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interviews with Harry R. Long, Somerville, N.J.,
Long, Harry R. Personal
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from 1918 to 1920.
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the West Indies Trading Co., Port-au-Prince, with Dana G. Munro, Princeton, N.J.,
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Feb. 28, 1968. Dr. Munro was in the late 1920s and early 1930s.
Affairs and then minister to Haiti --- Page 329 ---
Index
7, 1938, 225-27, Blassingame, John W., 120
Accord of August
Bobo, Rosalvo, 71-74, 78
Borah, William E., 17, 184, 204-5
Adee, Alvey A., 31
Borno, Louis, 15, 16, 87 n, 126, 128,
Alexis, Stephen, 151
182-38, 135, 147, 150, 161, 189Allen, John H., 48
98, 201-2, 210-13, 217, 219-20
American Club (Port-au-Prince), Bryan, William Jennings, 9, 46-58,
125, 187, 220
Corpora61-62, 75, 224
American International
Butler, Smedley Darlington, 8, 17,
tion, 111-12
78-81, 84-86, 89-90, 93-94, 97S.S. American Legion, 227
100, 110, 116, 123-24, 129, 136,
Armour, Norman, 111, 226, 228
140, 147, 155, 213
Associated Press (AP), 204
Butler, Thomas S., 80
Atlanta Compromise (1895), 13
Aux Cayes massacre, 199-200, 20242, 71, 82-86, 91, 102-4
Cacos, Démosthène P., 217-18
Calixte, William B., 65, 66n, 68Bailly-Blanchard, Arthur, 48, 144, Caperton, 71-79, 83-84
69,
Catlin, Albertus W., 101-2
Banana wars, 5, 8, 9
39-41, Cayes massacre, 199-200, 202-5
Banque Contract (1910), 164; Cercle Bellevue Club (Port-au45, 49-51, 60, 129-31,
Prince), 140, 191
(1922), 131, 164
Charlemagne (Peralte), 102-3
Banque Nationale de la République Claims Commission (1919), 161,
d'Haiti, 33, 38-41, 48-53, 56, 6061, 69, 76, 109, 128-30, 154, 161, Club 163 Bellevue (Port-au-Prince),
163, 165, 207, 224-25, 229, 234
140, 191
Barau, Justin, 228
103, Colby, Bainbridge, 119, 130
Barnett, George, 79 n, 84-85,
Cole, Eli K., 85, 89, 92, 94-95, 98,
106, 119
109-10, 113, 117, 146
Beach, Edward L., 71-74,
Colmore, Charles Blayney, 122
Bellegarde, Dantès, 227
Committee of Public Safety (PortBig Stick Policy, 44, 231
au-Prince, 1915), 73
Blaine, James G., 3, 81
Barnett, George, 79 n, 84-85,
Cole, Eli K., 85, 89, 92, 94-95, 98,
106, 119
109-10, 113, 117, 146
Beach, Edward L., 71-74,
Colmore, Charles Blayney, 122
Bellegarde, Dantès, 227
Committee of Public Safety (PortBig Stick Policy, 44, 231
au-Prince, 1915), 73
Blaine, James G., 3, 81 --- Page 330 ---
INDEX
Constitution of 1918, 96-100, 108, Etienne, Frank Oscar, E., 65 211, 215 n, 218
111, 113, 118, 155-56, 192; Evans,
Amendments (1928), 179, 191Plan, 61
Farnham
51-52
Farnham, Roger L., 48-50, 52-53,
Convention budgétaire, 178
55-57, 60-61, 112, 117, 182, 162,
Coolidge, Calvin, 184, 104, 119, 122,
176, 184-85, 223
Corvée, 11, 100-102,
First National Bank (New York),
P., 200
Cotton, Joseph
Henry P., 208
Coulthard, G. R., 151
Fletcher,
(President's
Council of State, 11, 99, 192, 210-12 Forbes Commission for Study and ReCromer, Earl of, 126, 217
Commission Conditions in the RepubCrowder, Enoch H., 123
view of
1930), 125, 143, 166,
Cumberland, W. W., 81, 128, 189,
lic of Haiti,
218, 221; Mem148, 157, 163, 165-66, 166 n, 167,
182, 197, 208-16,
169, 172, 176, 178, 180, 182, 189bership, 208
208-13, 21690, 234
Forbes, W. Cameron,
Cutts, R. M., 198, 218
Bondholders Protective
Foreign
Daniels, Josephus, 57, 59, 60, 66, 73,
Council, 229
74, 77-78, 84, 99, 101, 103 n, Fort Rivière, 84-85
105-6, 110, 114
Franck, Henry A., 119
183Damien, 196
Freeman, George F., 177, 181,
Dartiguenave, Philippe Sudre, 7285, 197-98, 209-10, 220
77, 79-81, 91-92, 97, 98, 110-11, Fuller, Paul, 62
113, 127-30, 132-33, 190
Furniss, Henry W., 49
Davis, R. B., 76
Denby, Edwin, 123
General Sugar Company,
de la Rue, Sidney, 167, 170, 191, Génération de Toccupation, 23, 150,
198, 218, 221, 223, 236
Descartes (French warship), 66
Germans in Haiti, 34-36, 38-41, 52Douglass, Frederick, 31
53, 58, 91-96, 98, 130
Duvalier, François, 23, 83 n, 232, Good Neighbor Policy, 18, 165, 198,
226-27, 231-32
W. R. Grace and Company, 37
Echo, L' (newspaper), 93
Gross, Christian, 195
Ecole Militaire, 87
Gruening, Ernest, 17, 120-22, 227
Elections, (1918) 98-99; (1926) Grummon, Stuart, 145, 148, 159,
156, 191; (1928) 192-98; (1930)
193-94, 210-12, 219
Guantânamo Bay, Cuba, 31, 56-57,
Ethelberga Syndicate (London),
(newspaper), 93
Gross, Christian, 195
Ecole Militaire, 87
Gruening, Ernest, 17, 120-22, 227
Elections, (1918) 98-99; (1926) Grummon, Stuart, 145, 148, 159,
156, 191; (1928) 192-98; (1930)
193-94, 210-12, 219
Guantânamo Bay, Cuba, 31, 56-57,
Ethelberga Syndicate (London), --- Page 331 ---
INDEX
Haiti-Santo
Domingo Independence Society, 121
Légitime, F. Deus, 72
Haitian-American Sugar Company Lejeune, John A., 79, 105-6
(HASCO), 95, 169, 171, 178
Lescot, Elie, 230
Hamburg-American Line, 34-36
Leyburn, James G., 21, 144
Harding, Warren G., 107, 118-19, Lindbergh, Charles, 191
133, 144, 164, 169
Little, Louis McCarty, 95, 141,
HASCO (Haitian-American
214n, 220
Company), 95,
Sugar Loan consolidation
169, 171, 178
161-65
(1922), 183,
Heinl, Robert D., Jr., 140n, 233
Herr
Herskovits, Melville J., 236
Lucas, 93
Hoetink, H., 20n
Hooker, Richard C., 102
MacCorkle, W. A., 170
Hoover, Herbert C., 14, 16, 196, McCormick Committee, See Senate
200-201, 205-8, 214; n, 222
Hearings.
Howe, Louis, 112
McCormick, Medill, 121-22, 148
Hughes, Charles Evans, 123-24, McDonald, James P., 37, 54, 71
131, 133-34, 177
U.S.S. Machias, 60
Hull, Cordell, 224, 227-29
Mcllhenny, John A., 97n, 110-14,
Hurst, Anne, 145
116-17, 119, 129-32, 144, 162, 165
McRoberts, Samuel, 38
Ichicawa, J. A., 92
Mahan, Alfred Thayer, 3, 31
Inman, Samuel Guy, 90, 204
Manigat, Leslie F., 38
International Claims
Mars, Jean Price-, 23, 150
161, 163
Commission, Martial law, 74-75, 117, 120, 123,
Isthmian Policy (1927), 231
133, 190
Marvin, George, 119
Johnson, James Weldon, 17, 118-20 Maumus, A. J, 132
Jolibois, Joseph, fils, 196, 219
Mayer, F. L., 130
Mayo, Henry T., 106
Karlsruhe (German warship), 58
Menos, Solon, 72
Kellogg, Frank B., 147
Millspaugh, Arthur C., 126-28, 158,
Kerney, James, 208, 210, 215 n
161, 172, 178-79, 191
King, William H., 17, 134, 190, 204 Môle Mitchell, Charles E., 164
Knapp, H. S., 101, 116
Saint-Nicolas, 30-31, 52-53,
Knox, Philander C., 39, 40, 44-45
56-58, 61, 72
Monroe Doctrine, 43, 58, 114, 204,
Lane, Frank K., 74
231-32
Lansing, Robert, 48, 57-60, 62, 67, Montevideo 227-29
Conference (1933),
70-73, 75, 77, 98, 114-15, 131
Montreal
Lee, Higginson and Company, 162
(French ship), 94
Leger, J. N., 72
Moravia, Charles, 195
J. P. Morgan and Company, 132
43, 58, 114, 204,
Lane, Frank K., 74
231-32
Lansing, Robert, 48, 57-60, 62, 67, Montevideo 227-29
Conference (1933),
70-73, 75, 77, 98, 114-15, 131
Montreal
Lee, Higginson and Company, 162
(French ship), 94
Leger, J. N., 72
Moravia, Charles, 195
J. P. Morgan and Company, 132 --- Page 332 ---
INDEX
Roosevelt Corollary (1904), 44
Moton, Robert R., 185
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 74, 841 n, 90,
Munro, Dana G., 118, 124, 185, 201,
99-100, 106, 108, 110-12, 116-18,
217 n, 220-23, 226, 282
138, 214 n, 218, 226-27, 229-30
Myers, John, 143
Roosevelt, Henry L. (Harry), 111120-21, 194,
Nation (magazine),
Root, Elihu, 43
224n
for the Ad- Roumain, Jacques, 151 218-19
National Association
Roy, Eugene, 211-12,
vancement of Colored People Russell, John H., 95-96, 101-2, 106,
(NAACP), 120
124-29, 185, 140-48, 145-47, 156,
National City Bank of New York,
161, 172, 174, 176, 178, 183, 18917, 37-39, 48, 50, 57,6 61, 109, 129202, 207-18, 220-21
32, 154, 162-65, 224, 229
Russell, Mrs. John H., 174, 209
National Geographic (magazine),
Sam, Vilbrun Guillaume, 64-66, 72
National Railway of Haiti, 37-38, Samanà Bay, Dominican Republic,
40, 48, 52, 60, 73, 132, 161-63,
30, 57
171, 223
Scott, W. R., 185, 222
Négritude, 23, 151, 235-36
Seligmann, Herbert J., 120
Neville, Wendell C., 88
Senate Hearings (Hearings Before
New Republic (magazine), 22A n
a Select Committee on Haiti and
Norris, George W., 134
Santo Domingo, 1921-22), 84,
103-4, 107, 109, 117, 120-25, 214;
Open Door Policy, 5-7
Membership, 121 n
HearOreste, Michel, 50-51
Senate Inquiry. See Senate
ings.
16, 158, 175,
Panama Canal, 5, 9, 43, 44, 56
Service Technique, 189, 194, 196-97,
P.C.S. (Plaine du Cul-de-Sac) Rail177-78, 180-87,
road, 86-37, 162
209, 220-21, 236 169, 175
Peralte, Charlemagne, 102-3
Sinclair Oil Company,
Perkins, James H., 224
Smith, Madison R., 51 37-39
Powell, William F., 36
Speyer and Company, Company, 178
President's Commission for Study Standard Fruit
198-201, 205,
and Review of Conditions in the Stimson, Henry L,
Republic of Haiti (1930). See
208, 218, 222, 231
Forbes Commission.
Sylvain, Georges, 120
Progressivism, 13-16
Taft, Edna, 188, 140
69, 187
Treaty of 1915 (Haitian-AmeriRed Cross (American),
can), 11, 75-77, 86, 108, 118, 115Robin (caco general), 83
16, 160-61, 164-66, 182
Rockefeller Foundation, 187
Republic of Haiti (1930). See
208, 218, 222, 231
Forbes Commission.
Sylvain, Georges, 120
Progressivism, 13-16
Taft, Edna, 188, 140
69, 187
Treaty of 1915 (Haitian-AmeriRed Cross (American),
can), 11, 75-77, 86, 108, 118, 115Robin (caco general), 83
16, 160-61, 164-66, 182
Rockefeller Foundation, 187 --- Page 333 ---
INDEX
Turner, T. C., 104
Welles, Sumner, 131
Turrill, J. S., 127, 195 n
Wells, Clark H., 101, 104-5
Tuskegee Institute, 183, 185
White, Francis, 143, 213, 222, 224,
Union Patriotique, 120-22, 129, 152 White, William Allen, 59, 73, 208United Fruit Company, 53, 171, 175
United Press (UP), 204
Williams, Alexander S., 105
Wilson, Edwin C., 225
Valcin, Virgile, 151
Wilson Plan, 62
Vanderlip, Frank A., 38, 40
Wilson, Woodrow, 8-10, 15, 46-47,
Versailles Peace
Conference
53-56, 58-59, 61-62, 67, 70-71,
(1919), 108, 115
88, 106, 114-15, 118-19, 131, 144
Vezina, Elie, 208
Wise, Frederick M., 103, 106
Villard, Oswald Garrison, 120
World's Work (magazine), 119-20
Vincent, Sténio, 219-21, 226-28, U.S.S. Wright, 200-201
Voorhies, Walter, 224 n
"X,"72-78
Waller, Littleton W. T., 8, 78-81, Young, A. N., 169
91, 103, 145
Washington, Booker T., 18, 183
Zamor, Charles, 83
Weatherly, Ulysses B., 157
Zimmermann Telegram, 93 --- Page 334 ---
About the Author
Hans Schmidt graduated from the University of California at
Berkeley and secured his master's and doctor's degrees at Rutgers,
The State University of New Jersey. At present he is senior lecturer
ofl history at the University of Hong Kong.