--- Page 1 --- The United States Oooupation of Haiti, 1915-1934 --- Page 2 --- BLANK PAGE --- Page 3 --- The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915-1934 Hans Schmidt RUTGERS UNIVERSITY PRESS New Brunswtck, New Jersey --- Page 4 --- Second printing, 1995 Foreword copyright O 1995 by Stephen Solarz Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Schmidt, Hans, 1938The United States occupation of Haiti, 1915-1934 I Hans Schmidt. 2nd printing. p. cm. Includes a new foreword by Stephen Solarz. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8135-2203-X (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Haiti-History-American occupation, 1915-1934. I. Title. F1927.S35 1971 972.94'05-dc20 95-5459 CIP Copyright O 1971 by Rutgers, The State University All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America --- Page 5 --- To Lloyd C. Gardner, Jr. --- Page 6 --- BLANK PAGE --- Page 7 --- Contents Foreword by Stephen Solarz ix Acknowledgments xvii 1 Introduction 2 Haiti before the Intervention 3 The Decision to Intervene 4 The Intervention 5 The Marines Take Charge 6 Reorganization and Rationalization 7 Racial and Cultural Tensions 8 Uplift-The Prospects 9 Uplift-Success and Failure 10 Strikes and Riots 11 Withdrawal 12 Epilogue Notes Bibliography Index --- Page 8 --- BLANK PAGE --- Page 9 --- Foreword "Those who do not study the past, 9 the great American philosopher to Santayana once observed, "are condemned and historian George repeat it." s> first American occupation of Haiti, Forty years after the end ofthe in Forces ofthe United States once again possession with the Armed edition of Hans Schmidt's definitive acof Port-au-Prince, this new of Haiti, 1915-1934, could not count of the United States occupation For those currently rehave come out at a more timely moment. who care Haitian as well as those genuinely sponsible for our policy, this seminal assessabout American policy toward the Caribbean, intervention in Haiti, ment of what brought about the original U.S. assignment. and what went wrong with it, should be a mandatory in Haiti, those opPrior to the most recent American intervention all about referring to our posed to the use of force were not at shy Haiti military means. previous effort to advance U.S. interests in by the critics sugbogged down earlier in the century, Having gotten reason to believe we would once again end gested, there was every for decades. Yet keeping Santayana's sage up being stuck in Haiti strikes a reader of Schmidt's advice in mind, what most forcefully the differences between the trenchant analysis is the extent to which far more American interventions in Haiti are signififirst and second cant than the similarities. contexts in which the two intervenFor one thing, the historic different. In the early part of the centions took place were entirely in a kind of imperial competition tury, the United States was engaged gotten reason to believe we would once again end gested, there was every for decades. Yet keeping Santayana's sage up being stuck in Haiti strikes a reader of Schmidt's advice in mind, what most forcefully the differences between the trenchant analysis is the extent to which far more American interventions in Haiti are signififirst and second cant than the similarities. contexts in which the two intervenFor one thing, the historic different. In the early part of the centions took place were entirely in a kind of imperial competition tury, the United States was engaged --- Page 10 --- X with the European FOREWORD their colonial claims powers, most of whom had long since staked out mined in Africa and Asia. The United to keep the Americas for itself. It had States was detersult of the Spanish-American War in acquired Cuba as a reTeddy Roosevelt 1898. It had "taken" Panama, as And put it, in 1903. It had invaded in one of the greatest feats of civil Nicaragua in 1909. completed the Panama Canal in 1914. engineering in history, it had By the last decade of the twentieth had long since passed. Far from century, the age of colonialism tion of new dependencies, being concerned about the acquisithe former more interested in giving effect to the colonial powers were now tion within their former principle of self-determinaexisted in the earlier part possessions. of the And unlike the situation which hemisphere were governed by century, when most countries in the 1990s the only other autocrats and dictators, by the mida country in the region besides Haiti that democracy was Cuba. The United States was not use its military power in the might still be prepared to Panama and Haiti, but not in Caribbean, as it has in recent years in that were characteristic pursuit of the imperialistic of its earlier interventions. imperatives Indeed, the primary difference between the and 1994 was the motivation. In the interventions in 1915 makes unmistakably clear, the former, as Professor Schmidt der to prevent Germany from United States acted primarily in orit was feared, would threaten establishing a naval base in Haiti that, In the latter, the our ability to use the Panama Canal. eign power the purpose of our intervention was not to use of Haitian territory for deny a forrestore to its military purposes, but to elected proper place on Haitian territory the government of the country. democraticallyIt is from this fundamental ferences between the two dichotomy that most of the other difestablish interventions flow. Instead of to duced democracy in 1915 and the years that moving it. Among other things, we suspended the followed, we tra- (when it refused to do our bidding) and elected legislature a client president utterly bereft of arranged for the "election" of was the popular favorite, Dr. Resalvo popular support. Shunted aside guages and "was greatly beloved Bobo, who spoke several lanalways had first call on his in Haiti because the poor . "idealist and services" but who was considered an by the dreamer . utterly unsuited to be Haiti's occupation authorities. president" years that moving it. Among other things, we suspended the followed, we tra- (when it refused to do our bidding) and elected legislature a client president utterly bereft of arranged for the "election" of was the popular favorite, Dr. Resalvo popular support. Shunted aside guages and "was greatly beloved Bobo, who spoke several lanalways had first call on his in Haiti because the poor . "idealist and services" but who was considered an by the dreamer . utterly unsuited to be Haiti's occupation authorities. president" --- Page 11 --- FOREWORD Saddled with the need to defend and xi regime, we felt obligated to rule protect an unpopular puppet than Haitian law. Unable on the basis of martial law rather World War and the to withdraw even after the end ofthe First passing of the German ment we had installed be overthrown threat, lest the governadministration decided to and chaos ensue, the Wilson before the Marines remain. It would be another fifteen were withdrawn by President years Roosevelt who, as Assistant Franklin Delano had helped draft the Secretary of the Navy under Wilson, the occupation began. constitution we imposed on Haiti shortly after In 1994, by contrast, we sent American forces restore democracy rather than to demean to Haiti in order to unpopular client whose main it. Instead of installing an brace our cause, we returned qualification was his willingness to emwho had been elected as president to Port-au-Prince the man by an overwhelming in guably the only truly free and fair majority what was arof the country. Like Dr. Bobo, presidential election in the history had thwarted whose presidential aspirations we Aristede three-quarters of a century ago, Father was a highly intelligent and Jean Bertrand who enjoyed widespread multilingual man of the people got it right. Unlike popular support. This time, our previous intervention however, we ance of the Haitian when we acted in defiIn the short people, we were now acting with their run, at least, it has made all support. world. In 1915 as the American the difference in the Marines they were obligated to walk down the middle patrolled Port-au-Prince, being hit on the head by bags of of the street to avoid the resentful residents of the garbage being thrown at them by an armed insurrection. city. It wasn't long before they faced In 1994, the Haiti were greeted, if not as American troops landing in erators who had freed them conquering from heroes, then at least as librannical regime. Far from the clutches of a ruthless and tysoon as possible, which wanting the occupying forces to leave as wanted them to was the case in 1915, most Haitians in 1994 remain, at least until they disarmed "attachés" who served as the shock the thugs and ment that had oppressed them. troops for the military governtoo long the first time, there Indeed, if American troops stayed being withdrawn too was reason to be concerned they were soon the second time. Another significant difference between the which has undoubtedly two interventions, contributed to the greater popularity of the utches of a ruthless and tysoon as possible, which wanting the occupying forces to leave as wanted them to was the case in 1915, most Haitians in 1994 remain, at least until they disarmed "attachés" who served as the shock the thugs and ment that had oppressed them. troops for the military governtoo long the first time, there Indeed, if American troops stayed being withdrawn too was reason to be concerned they were soon the second time. Another significant difference between the which has undoubtedly two interventions, contributed to the greater popularity of the --- Page 12 --- FOREWORD xii while the extent to which in 1915 we acted unilaterally, latter, was after obtaining a United Nations mandate to in 1994 we acted only nationalistic as Haiti, where memodo sO. For a country as fervently embedded in the folk memory ries of the earlier intervention remain character of the latest intervention of the people, the multinational than it otherwise has surely made it politically more acceptable would have been. difference that emerges from this comThere is at least one other intervention that is clearly releprehensive assessment of our earlier made about our latest effort to that might be vant to any judgments in Haiti. Almost without exception, as influence the course of events of the earlier OCdemonstrates, the leadership Dr. Schmidt painfully and Marines who carried it out were cupation and most of the men with them deeply ingrained racial white Southerners, who brought administration that were totally inimical to an acceptable prejudices of the country. social status was The Haitian elite, whose claim to a preferential of their own skin based at least in part on the relative "lightness" authorities to the refusal of the occupying color, were shocked by To the Marines, a take note of distinctions based on pigmentation. from the as much a "nigger" as a coal-black peasant mulatto was just masses, many of whom suffered countryside. And to the Haitian system from the brutality and degradation of an American-imposed considered an inof forced labor, which the occupation authorities works, the Mamethod for the construction of public dispensable enforced the "corvée" appeared as a twentieth-century rines who whose slave rule the Haitian version ofthe French overlords against earlier. people had successfully revolted over a century the American miliBy the time of the U.S. intervention in 1994, far from being totally tary had been completely integrated and, it now included many white and largely southern as it was in 1915, much more enlightened men and women of color (with presumably who number of Hatitian-Americans views on race) and a significant result, one of the major irritants were fluent in Creole as well. As a from the very beginning of of the previous intervention was absent for the attitude of the most recent one, with attendant consequences the Haitian people toward the current occupation. to conclude that considering these differences, One is tempted, , far from being totally tary had been completely integrated and, it now included many white and largely southern as it was in 1915, much more enlightened men and women of color (with presumably who number of Hatitian-Americans views on race) and a significant result, one of the major irritants were fluent in Creole as well. As a from the very beginning of of the previous intervention was absent for the attitude of the most recent one, with attendant consequences the Haitian people toward the current occupation. to conclude that considering these differences, One is tempted, --- Page 13 --- FOREWORD there is little reason to be concerned that xiii result, as did the first, in a prolonged the latest intervention will lace, for whom nothing occupation of a resentful popuAmerican military was more pleasing and popular about the would be presence than its termination. Such a conclusion premature. For one thing, the earlier nineteen years. The current intervention lasted on for nineteen weeks. one, as of this writing, has barely gone there And, as Professor Schmidt are enough similarities between these demonstrates, escapably intertwined two episodes in our infuture. history to constitute a cautionary tale for the In both instances, for in effective control of example, we had no intention of Haiti for a prolonged remaining stayed there for almost two decades the period of time. We opposition to the first time because, given the could leave without regime we had installed, there was no way we going there in risking the loss of what we had the first place. accomplished by have put in power (albeit far Now, as then, the government we client president and more popular and legitimate than the cant opposition, and parliament we established earlier) faces signifiand United Nations probably could not survive if the United States (which was scheduled to assume security in Haiti after the departure of American responsibility for 1995) were to prematurely withdraw the troops in March of It remains to be seen how forces they have sent there. security force long it will take to create an capable of protecting President indigenous ernment from those elements of Haitian Aristede and his govmined to overthrow him. society that remain deterIn both instances there was also significant pation of Haiti in the United States. opposition to the occuof demonstrations and riots in Ultimately, it was the outbreak in motion the political forces Haiti against the occupation that set withdrawal of in the United States that led to troops in 1934. A comparable the around, particularly if it should lead to the development this time blood, would almost certainly shedding of American produce a similar result. Interestingly, if the opposition to the first was led by liberals (who saw it as a classic American occupation intervention), the opposition to the second example of an imperialist conservatives (who failed to see any vital occupation was led by interest). Conversely, it was the connection to our national conservatives who favored the first that set withdrawal of in the United States that led to troops in 1934. A comparable the around, particularly if it should lead to the development this time blood, would almost certainly shedding of American produce a similar result. Interestingly, if the opposition to the first was led by liberals (who saw it as a classic American occupation intervention), the opposition to the second example of an imperialist conservatives (who failed to see any vital occupation was led by interest). Conversely, it was the connection to our national conservatives who favored the first --- Page 14 --- xiv intervention FOREWORD liberals who (recognizing the need to safeguard the Canal), and the supported the second stake in the restoration of (believing that we did have a The main similarity, however, democracy). the unchanging realities of has much more to do with some of ations that have Haiti than with the changing considermotivated the United two hundred years, from the time States. For more than Haitian people have been afflicted they became independent, the and repressive regimes, with by an unending cycle of corrupt each succeeding being worse than the one that government usually cal soil of Haiti the seeds of preceded it. In the cultural and politirather than later, the most democracy are not easily sown. Sooner, be withdrawn. And recent forces of occupation will hands of the when they are, the fate of Haiti will be probably in Haitians themselves, with whom it the sarily belongs. rightfully and necesThe first American intervention in Haiti sense but a failure in another. To the was a success in one strategic extent that it was motivated considerations, it was unquestionably by Germany nor any other successful. Neither there. Our access to the country was able to establish a naval base to the extent that Panama Canal remained we tried to leave Haiti better unhampered. But the intervention was a dismal failure. off than we found it, hospitals were the greatest and most Roads, bridges, schools, and occupation. But once we significant manifestation of the left behind departed, the physical soon began to deteriorate. It infrastructure we almost all fallen into disrepair and wasn't long before it had bitter memories of a racist disuse. What remained were the mental contradiction of occupation that had constituted a fundamocracy. >9 our pledge to "make the world safe for deLike our first intervention in Haiti, the second in its original objective. The has also succeeded President Aristede has been demnocraticall-elected returned government of political infrastructure of to power. But whether the second intervention, lasts democracy, the main contribution of the which was the any longer than the physical infrastructure primary legacy of the first seen. If democracy, after two intervention, remains to be finally takes root in centuries of false starts and betrayals, Haiti, the most recent intervention will right- --- Page 15 --- FOREWORD XV fully be considered a success. But if the restoration of democracy turns out to be but a brief interlude between the more traditional forms of repression which have characterized the political system of Haiti, it will appropriately be judged a failure. Of the first American occupation of Haiti, as Dr. Schmidt makes abundantly clear, we have much to be ashamed. Of the second American intervention in Haiti, particularly if it should lead to an enduring democracy, there is much of which we can potentially be proud. Time, as Santayana might have said, will tell. Stephen Solarz Washington, D.C. January 1995 restoration of democracy turns out to be but a brief interlude between the more traditional forms of repression which have characterized the political system of Haiti, it will appropriately be judged a failure. Of the first American occupation of Haiti, as Dr. Schmidt makes abundantly clear, we have much to be ashamed. Of the second American intervention in Haiti, particularly if it should lead to an enduring democracy, there is much of which we can potentially be proud. Time, as Santayana might have said, will tell. Stephen Solarz Washington, D.C. January 1995 --- Page 16 --- BLANK PAGE --- Page 17 --- Aciknowledgments Except for several articles dealing with is the first to be based on archival special topics, this study over the past fifteen years. The materials that have been clude State Department new sources used in this study opened inpapers, especially the Naval papers; Records Navy Department and Marine Corps Archives; articles and memoirs Collection in the National officers where written by high-ranking the Navy permission to publish had been denied military Department; personal papers of previously by ment officials. military and State DepartIam indebted to many people for of this study. Lloyd C. Gardner, help in the research and writing me with advice and Jr., of Rutgers University helped I. Susman of Rutgers encouragement through every phase. Warren the earlier stages and University made many helpful suggestions in of the final manuscript. provided Professors a penetrating critique of a portion and Dana G. Munro of Princeton Emeritus L. Ethan Ellis of Rutgers knowledge and insights with me; I University thank them graciously shared their and their example of historical both for their interest University read an early draft of scholarship. the Sidney W. Mintz of Yale detailed criticisms. Adam D. Horvath, manuscript and made excellent Reserve University Press, currently at Case Western Colonel Robert D. Heinl, gave me sound advice at a crucial stage. steered me to Jr., United States Marine Corps manuscript. important source materials and read a (Ret.), My colleagues at State portion of the New York, David Krikun, J. Ignacio University College, New Paltz, Mendez, Donald Roper, and University read an early draft of scholarship. the Sidney W. Mintz of Yale detailed criticisms. Adam D. Horvath, manuscript and made excellent Reserve University Press, currently at Case Western Colonel Robert D. Heinl, gave me sound advice at a crucial stage. steered me to Jr., United States Marine Corps manuscript. important source materials and read a (Ret.), My colleagues at State portion of the New York, David Krikun, J. Ignacio University College, New Paltz, Mendez, Donald Roper, and --- Page 18 --- xviii Joseph d'Oronzio read ACKNOWLEDGMENTS suggestions. portions of the manuscript and made useful Many librarians and archivists have I especially thank Mr. Schwartz of the contributed to this study. Records Collection, François-Xavier National Archives Naval Library, Serge Corvington of the New Grondin of Rutgers University staffs of the Marine Corps York Public Library, and the dria, Virginia, and the Marine Headquarters Historical Section, AlexanI am grateful to the following Corps Museum in Quantico, Virginia. me access to source materials and archives and libraries for granting National Archives for the State assisting me in their use: The White Papers, the Naval Records Department Papers, the Francis of the Navy Department, the Collection, the General Records Commission Papers, the Records Marine of Corps Records, the Forbes and the records of the Bureau of the Bureau of Insular Affairs, The Library of Congress for the Foreign W. and Domestic Commerce. Josephus Daniels Papers, the Cordell Cameron Forbes Papers, the Lejeune Papers, and the Woodrow Wilson Hull Papers, the John A. Library for the Henry L. Stimson Papers. Yale University History Research Office for the Papers. Frank Columbia University Oral Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, A. Vanderlip Papers. The lin D. Roosevelt Papers. Hyde park, New York, for the FrankThe following have graciously permission to use photographs: The provided me with or granted me Combat Pictorial Section, United States Marine Corps Museum, Quantico, Washington, D.C.; the Marine Corps Geographic Virginia; Mrs. Virginia A. White; and National magazine. My graduate school colleagues Richard Tom Hulbeck of Auburn Brody of Queens College, University of Maryland, Bob Community College, Terry Major of the Jeff Safford of Montana State Mayer of Newark State College, and enthusiasm, friendship, and University buoyed me with their research phase. Morris Garber many of helpful insights during the early as a teaching assistant Rutgers University made my life concentrate more simpler and happier SO that I was able to The State intently on this project. University of New York me a faculty research Research Foundation granted My wife Joan has shared fellowship the to pursue my work in this area. rewards and frustrations throughout. Hans Schmidt College, Terry Major of the Jeff Safford of Montana State Mayer of Newark State College, and enthusiasm, friendship, and University buoyed me with their research phase. Morris Garber many of helpful insights during the early as a teaching assistant Rutgers University made my life concentrate more simpler and happier SO that I was able to The State intently on this project. University of New York me a faculty research Research Foundation granted My wife Joan has shared fellowship the to pursue my work in this area. rewards and frustrations throughout. Hans Schmidt --- Page 19 --- The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915-1934 --- Page 20 --- 01780d38 NVOINIWOO ) a / - - a S . I N & E S & a a M e a a J - a - I / I a X - - --- Page 21 --- Introduction after the Civil War was characterUnited States foreign expansion American political and interest in establishing ized by an intensified and the Pacific. Previous American military control in the Caribbean around commercial expansion, interests in these areas had centered official and private efforts focusing on the China trade and various of Commodore trading advantages such as the activities to procure Cornelius Vanderbilt in Nicaragua. Immediately Perry in Japan and of State William Seward began the after the Civil War, Secretary Alaska in 1867, by quest for an American empire by purchasing and by attempting to annex Midway Island in the Pacific, occupying Santo Domingo in the Caribbean. and territorial toward militant imperialism The new tendency of the United States as an indusacquisition reflected the emergence nations in an intense rivalry trial power competing with European American expansionists for world markets and overseas possessions. and Theodore Roosevelt James G. Blaine, Henry Cabot Lodge, markets to relieve the pointed to the economic necessity of foreign States. Military strateglut of industrial production in the United promoted the congists, notably Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, naval bases and struction of a mighty navy, acquisition of foreign canal, and procurement coaling stations, the building of an isthmian rivalry and colonies. Given the pressures of international of foreign American diplomatic maneuvers nascent imperialistic ambitions, exhibited a new stridency as during the late nineteenth century markets and overseas possessions. and Theodore Roosevelt James G. Blaine, Henry Cabot Lodge, markets to relieve the pointed to the economic necessity of foreign States. Military strateglut of industrial production in the United promoted the congists, notably Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, naval bases and struction of a mighty navy, acquisition of foreign canal, and procurement coaling stations, the building of an isthmian rivalry and colonies. Given the pressures of international of foreign American diplomatic maneuvers nascent imperialistic ambitions, exhibited a new stridency as during the late nineteenth century --- Page 22 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED Marine Corps landings in Formosa, Japan, Uruguay, indicated by Egypt, Haiti, Samoa, Argentina, Mexico, Korea, Colombia, Hawaii, preparations, featuring the and China. Military Chile, Nicaragua, of begun in the 1880s and construction of a modern fleet warships aftermath of the Spanishthe creation of a general staff in the with the requisite force American War, provided the United States when national in world power politics. In an era for participation of conquest, the chalsuccess was measured in terms imperialistic of French, British, and lenge of European rivalry and the example served as successes in winning new colonial possessions German States. Of the European rivals, Gerpotent stimuli to the United immediate threat to American inconstituted both the most many example of expanding national terests and the most compelling that of Germany, greatness. American naval ambition paralleled in the Pacific and German and American interests clashed frequently over France in and Latin America. After the Prussian victory testament the United States Marine Corps, in a remarkable the 1870, aspirations for a place in the sun, adopted Prussian to American uniform headgear. spiked helmet as dress expansion were to achieve The immediate objectives of American the period from in the Caribbean and the Pacific. During hegemony United States annexed Alaska, Midway, Hawaii, 1867 to 1900 the Wake, and approximately fifty Guam, Tutuila, the Philippines, of these territories prosmaller islands in the Pacific. Acquisition lanes to the Orient and strategic vided coaling stations along the sea could operate effectively bases from which American naval forces by naval officers in the Pacific. Most of the islands were governed of the Philippines The taking responsible to the Navy Department. made the United States an Asiatic power. bound Caribbean, American interests were strategically In the and Asia. The lengthy voyage of the to developments in the Pacific Coast around the tip of South battleship Oregon from the West the ship was needed for action America to the Caribbean, where dramatized the urgent War in 1898, during the Spantsh-American President Theodore Roosevelt, himself need for an isthmian canal. "took" Panama in 1903 and the a strong advocate of sea power, sphere of influStates to stake out a Caribbean United proceeded concern over the security of the ence that pivoted around strategic In the and Asia. The lengthy voyage of the to developments in the Pacific Coast around the tip of South battleship Oregon from the West the ship was needed for action America to the Caribbean, where dramatized the urgent War in 1898, during the Spantsh-American President Theodore Roosevelt, himself need for an isthmian canal. "took" Panama in 1903 and the a strong advocate of sea power, sphere of influStates to stake out a Caribbean United proceeded concern over the security of the ence that pivoted around strategic --- Page 23 --- INTRODUCTION new Panama Canal and extensive Cuba. The canal, economic interests in Mexico and commercial link completed in 1914, became the vital military and with the West connecting the East Coast of the United Coast, the Pacific empire, and Asia. States As had been true in the Pacific, the American Caribbean began with commercial expansion into the territorial acquisitions and adventures and culminated in Rico to the United States in military invasions. Spain ceded Puerto and established a customs 1898, Roosevelt took Panama in 1903 in 1905, American receivership in the Dominican Republic Haiti in troops occupied Cuba in 1898, 1915, the Dominican Nicaragua in 1909, States purchased the Republic in 1916, and the United in the so-called banana Virgin Islands in 1916. Marine interventions wars were can control in the area, and in several primary instruments of Amerition, lasting intermittently from cases were of extended duraconsecutively from 1915 to 1909 to 1933 in Nicaragua and The 1934 in Haiti. pattern of diplomacy in the Caribbean and Pacific sharply with American diplomacy contrasted torians, focusing on elsewhere in the world. Hiscies regarding their relationships colonial with European powers and poliacterize American spheres of influence, frequently charframework of the liberal diplomacy as having evolved within the broad who defend American political tradition. Both those historians critical policy and the revisionists who are assume, from their respective generally has been the key historical factor. vantage points, that liberalism United States Revisionists have argued that the pursued an Open Door in tury, and that this policy was rooted in policy the twentieth cennationlism" that envisaged an ideology of "liberal interworld. The United States, capitalist economic expansion in an open strength in a free-trade world exercising its financial and industrial dominate within the framework economic system, would thrive and use of force or the encumbrances of liberal values and without ugly leading revisionist has and expenses of colonialism. One colonialism" inasmuch characterized the policy as "imperial antiism sustained in as it involved American economic part by the destruction of other imperialspheres of influence.' Thus the United nations' colonial trade barriers, colonial States sought to destroy established by rival enclaves, and economic spheres of influence powers on the premise that the United States world exercising its financial and industrial dominate within the framework economic system, would thrive and use of force or the encumbrances of liberal values and without ugly leading revisionist has and expenses of colonialism. One colonialism" inasmuch characterized the policy as "imperial antiism sustained in as it involved American economic part by the destruction of other imperialspheres of influence.' Thus the United nations' colonial trade barriers, colonial States sought to destroy established by rival enclaves, and economic spheres of influence powers on the premise that the United States --- Page 24 --- 1915-1934 OCCUPATION OF HAITI, UNITED STATES in an and economic potential best realize its full political American foreign could Traditional historians, defending of American open world. internationalism the embodiment by law. policy, see in liberal and equal rights guaranteed this freedom, and Pacific, values of democracy, activities in the Caribbean to the In view of American must be severely qualified open-door characterization liberal internationalism liberal, the plausibility of seeing of American policy. point of denying factor in the formulation only in those as a basic or pervasive liberal internationalism of influThe United States practiced its own exclusive spheres where it could not set up used as a ploy to further areas Thus we see an open-door policy the United States did not enjoy ence. interests in China, where but an exclusive closed-door American politio-economie power, where the United States predominant Caribbean and the Pacific, its own absolute policy in the military power to enforce States occupation exercised sufficient of this study, the United from any prinThe subject departure hegemony. obviously entailed a complete the United States sought of Haiti, internationalism. While not the case in the ciples of liberal elsewhere in the world, this was became the "Ameran open order which in the early twentieth century Haiti clearly was a case of Caribbean, > The occupation of by the ican Mediterranean." diplomacy, as illustrated United sphere-of-infiuence from Haiti by closed-door, of German businessmen systematic deportation authorities in the early 1920s. evolution of the Good States military that the subsequent the American It has been argued exemplified by inpolicy in Latin America, of dominant liberal Neighbor from Haiti, was an indication foreign policy. This is withdrawal tendencies in United States assumed United States ternationalist Good Neighbor policy always of influence. The dubious. The entire area as a special sphere poscontrol over the policy was the much-belabored acid test of the Good Neighbor As soon as the United States perceived as in Guatemala ture of noninterventiontism. its hegemony in the Caribbean, in 1965, it threat to Republic a serious in 1961, and the Dominican enunciated durin 1954, Cuba The Johnson Doctrine, extension of the scuttled moninterventionism." intervention, was a direct While the ciring the 1965 Dominican and the Wilsonian banana wars. the exclusive Monroe Doctrine Cold War are in many ways new, cumstances of the much-belabored acid test of the Good Neighbor As soon as the United States perceived as in Guatemala ture of noninterventiontism. its hegemony in the Caribbean, in 1965, it threat to Republic a serious in 1961, and the Dominican enunciated durin 1954, Cuba The Johnson Doctrine, extension of the scuttled moninterventionism." intervention, was a direct While the ciring the 1965 Dominican and the Wilsonian banana wars. the exclusive Monroe Doctrine Cold War are in many ways new, cumstances of the --- Page 25 --- INTRODUCTION domination of the Caribbean powers, by force if region against incursions by outside foreign policy. necessary, remains an axiom of United States The precedents for the United States not the Open Door policy in China intervention in Haiti were to make the world safe for or Woodrow Wilson's crusade of guerrilla wars waged democracy, but rather the long series North against alien races and cultures in America, the Pacific, and the western tacts with alien peoples outside the Caribbean. The abrasive consame time that alien United States occurred at the peoples within the United States subjected to nativist and racist harassment were being ment of Indians, lynchings of marked by brutal treatoriental exclusion, and immigrants, Ku Klux Klan bigotry, nativist and racist tendencies systematic suppression of blacks. Internal of continuing national were carried abroad when, as a facet weaker neighboring growth and vitality, Americans mastered continental peoples who occupied the North America and contiguous areas in long history of bloody military overseas. This expansion entailed a can Indians and confrontations, first with the Amerisubsequently with Mexicans, Dominicans, Haitians, Nicaraguans, and Filipinos, Cubans, racism and American disdain for others. These wars involved ated into torture, "savages" and frequently systematic destruction of degenertactics tantamount to genocide. The villages, and military fare, where superior forces military logic of guerrilla warpitted against elusive, equipped with modern weapons were cally indistinguishable poorly equipped guerrillas who were from physiand-kill tactics which were most noncombatants, dictated vicious huntof racial and cultural conveniently rationalized in terms store of such prejudices. Americans came equipped with This prejudices to go along with their a was a world apart from "civilized" superior firepower. finements of European Western wars and the rewho commanded diplomacy. A United States Army insurrection troops during the suppression of the general in 1900, when questioned Philippine of the "ordinary rules of civilized about American violations warfare," people are not civilized.": replied simply, "These The prolonged experience of hostile contact had a cumulative effect. Each with alien peoples in terms of past new encounter was conceived experience and almost partly always as being outside the was a world apart from "civilized" superior firepower. finements of European Western wars and the rewho commanded diplomacy. A United States Army insurrection troops during the suppression of the general in 1900, when questioned Philippine of the "ordinary rules of civilized about American violations warfare," people are not civilized.": replied simply, "These The prolonged experience of hostile contact had a cumulative effect. Each with alien peoples in terms of past new encounter was conceived experience and almost partly always as being outside the --- Page 26 --- 1915-1934 OCCUPATION OF HAITI, UNTTED STATES States which characterized United after 1898, framework of mutual respect nations. This was especially true Pacific rerelations with European activity in the Caribbean and served sucwhen increased American of career personnel who sulted in the creation of a core By the time of the occupation to at various colonial outposts. wealth of such experience cessively the United States had a earlier banana wars; Major of Haiti, marines had fought in draw upon. Many of the American-aponsored D. Butler, first commandant in the Philippines, Smedley d'Haiti, had previously campaigned and Mexico; and Colonel Gendarmerie Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, of the Marine Expeditionary China, commander landings in Littleton W. T. Waller, had commanded the marine Forces in Haiti in 1915, that had achieved notoriety in connection civilCuba in 1906 and before in the Philippines. Many American colonial exwith the Samar atrocities to Haiti with previous also came the most important ian administrators of the four financial advisers, and Liberia, perience; three had held similar posts in Peru, Persia, had held a similar civilian officials, service and the head of the aghaulturat-techaial toward reposition in Indochina. trend in the twentieth century of liberal Given the increasing of all men and the new postures by spect for the dignity that were being promoted of indiinternationalism and progressivism colonial experience administration, the prior to alien races and the Wilson tradition of condescension came to Haiti viduals and the larger effect in Haiti. Americans such cultures had a baneful and stereotypes that included down with racist concepts >> which were handed equipped characterizations as "gook" and "nigger," e The past experience of contacts with alien peoples." involved routine patronfrom previous had all too often As a student of the governing these peoples by occasional brutality. Cuba has observed, ization punctuated States military occupation of and Filipinos, 1906-9 United with American Indians alien the army, in its encounters education in governing complex had gained "little meaningful societies" American troops in Vietnam. is still in common usage Koreans among as "gooks" in his book The Pueblo The term "gook" refers to North remains symptomatic Admiral Daniel V. Gallery 1970). Common use of the States. term "nigger" The derisive term "grenser," Incident (New York, racism within the United Mexicans, was not current in Haiti. of white American to Latin Americans, especially elsewhere applied with American Indians alien the army, in its encounters education in governing complex had gained "little meaningful societies" American troops in Vietnam. is still in common usage Koreans among as "gooks" in his book The Pueblo The term "gook" refers to North remains symptomatic Admiral Daniel V. Gallery 1970). Common use of the States. term "nigger" The derisive term "grenser," Incident (New York, racism within the United Mexicans, was not current in Haiti. of white American to Latin Americans, especially elsewhere applied --- Page 27 --- INTRODUCTION Haitians derived from nineWhile American attitudes toward and experience teenth-century Indian wars, previous banana wars, of the intervenwith blacks in the United States, the circumstances America tion were related to the emergence of twentieth-century The United States had as the dominant power in the Caribbean. the withdrawal achieved naval supremacy in the Caribbean upon in 1905. Neverof the larger units of Britain's West India squadron susceptible American hegemony in the area was considered theless, rivals, principally Germany, which posto challenge by European State and Navy Department sessed greater overall naval strength. acquiring a naval base in officials felt the possibility of Germany's American hegemony and to the Caribbean to be a grave threat to because of this postuthe security of the Panama Canal. Largely Haiti, the danger, United States troops occupied lated military Islands, and parts of Cuba in 1915, Dominican Republic, the Virgin of thereby completing the American garrisoning 1916, and 1917, of British Jamaica. In 1917 the Greater Antilles with the exception controlled all the American troops, plus the British in Cuba Jamaica, in the west to Puerto major islands in the Caribbean from thereby securing the several Rico and the Virgin Islands in the east, German the Panama Canal against possible sea lanes approaching The of Haiti, which had attack during World War I. occupation German hands, was thus most likely to fall into been considered short-term measure to ensure American conceived as an important In the context of long-term military hegemony in the Caribbean. and the Caribbean, the occupaAmerican expansion in the Pacific in the continuing tion of Haiti constituted another sequent step influence. formation of exclusive American spheres of intervention in Haiti took place at a time when, irrespective The of American military incursions in the of the relentless progression of United States foreign policy was Caribbean, the official posture the of smaller nations. of conciliation and respect for rights one of State William Jennings Bryan President Wilson and Secretary the use of force both anti-imperialists insofar as they abjured were Wilson's public statements about never in international relations. of conquest, 9> about seeking "one additional foot territory by 9, again countries on "terms of equality and honor," treating Latin-American world "safe for democracy" created a comand about making the in the of the relentless progression of United States foreign policy was Caribbean, the official posture the of smaller nations. of conciliation and respect for rights one of State William Jennings Bryan President Wilson and Secretary the use of force both anti-imperialists insofar as they abjured were Wilson's public statements about never in international relations. of conquest, 9> about seeking "one additional foot territory by 9, again countries on "terms of equality and honor," treating Latin-American world "safe for democracy" created a comand about making the --- Page 28 --- OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1984 UNITED STATES for the intervention. scenario which served as tendencies background in United States policy pelling indicative of the coercive American republics More remarks about teaching South that the United were Wilson's and his frequent insistence demoto "elect good men," to promote constitutional, the reality of States had a moral responsibility the Caribbean area. In Haiti cratic government in contradicted the gloss of liberal protesta- have American actions sharply sincere these protestations debasement may tions, however self-righteously reinforced by the current far below levels been. Racist preconceptions, placed the Haitians of Haiti's political institutions, necessary for democracy, self-government, narcissist comAmericans considered The generous and even noble by self-defeatand constitutionalism. American civilization was stymied centuries of pulsion to bestow cultivated during several the ing ethnocentric prejudices, and black slaves, which stigmatized domination over Indians and culturally inferior. Moreover, States subject peoples as genetically always gave first priority to United the Occupation in and Haiti economic interests. coupled with political, belief military, that Haitians were inherently inferior, in the Caribbean, led The dictates of State Department diplomacy ideal of spreadthe perversion of the declared missionary in the process of to grotesque democracy. Indeed, the Occupation, consistently suping liberal unwelcome foreign military domination, denied elementary politiexercising local democratic institutions and order, stability, and constitupressed liberties. Wilson's obsession with law and the sanctity of legal cal implying government by based on the tionalism, translated into rigid authoritarianism This contracts, was Haitians were incapable of self-government. for United assertion that and a rationalization assertion was in part an apology but it was also basic to American of building prejuStates military dictation, blacks and Latin Americans. Instead were quite dices regarding democratic institutions which, liberal on paper, democratic phifrom existing and had long incorporated associated the with the French impressive and governmental machinery overrode them and illegally losophy the United States blatantly system. One Revolution, antidemocratic forced through its own authoritarian, Wilson's passion for constitutionalsm, have might have expected, given Constitution of 1918 would that the new American-sponsored ization assertion was in part an apology but it was also basic to American of building prejuStates military dictation, blacks and Latin Americans. Instead were quite dices regarding democratic institutions which, liberal on paper, democratic phifrom existing and had long incorporated associated the with the French impressive and governmental machinery overrode them and illegally losophy the United States blatantly system. One Revolution, antidemocratic forced through its own authoritarian, Wilson's passion for constitutionalsm, have might have expected, given Constitution of 1918 would that the new American-sponsored --- Page 29 --- INTRODUCTION document. It was not. Its most been an exemplary, enlightened of alien landownership, important provisions were the legalization bicameral Haitian legislature, indefinite suspension of the elected of judges, and legalizatemporary suspension of the irremovability occupation. The new Contion of all acts of the American military ends, was rammed stitution, clearly a device to serve American plebiscite after through by means of an illegal, marine-supervised competent to tamper the Haitian legislature, the only body legally law, was summarily with the constitution under existing Haitian alteration of the longdisbanded because it refused to consider any as a bulwark which outlawed alien landownership standing precept domination. The elected legisagainst recurrence of white foreign Council of State appointed by lature was henceforth replaced by and a did not sit again until after the occupation's client-president, of 1929. Respect for law and strikes and riots the anti-American only in cases which suited American purlegal contracts applied Treaty of 1915, in effect a unilateral poses. The Haitian-American was frequently cited document executed by the State Department, commitfor continuing the occupation, a binding as justification United States was morally and legally obligated ment by which the until 1936. That the treaty could have to continue the occupation the same way that it was been abrogated at any time in exactly of Haitian naoriginally imposed, with the enthusiastic approval when the until after the 1929 uprisings, tionalists, was ignored termination of the occupation as United States decided on early the 1915 treaty was neatly American ends. At that stage best serving the interests of American bondjettisoned. Legal contracts involving and exactingly holders were another matter; these were rigorously enforced. indications of the extent to which liberal Perhaps the most telling under the pressures democratic missionary impulses were distorted forced-labor corvée used of racist colonial realities were the massive basic operative in by the marines to build roads, and the development policy, should occupation programs, that economic many agriculture financed by private come about through plantation establishment of foreign-dominated American investments. The destruction of the existing miniplantation agriculture necessitated peasant freeholders, and fundia land-tenure system with its myriad ; these were rigorously enforced. indications of the extent to which liberal Perhaps the most telling under the pressures democratic missionary impulses were distorted forced-labor corvée used of racist colonial realities were the massive basic operative in by the marines to build roads, and the development policy, should occupation programs, that economic many agriculture financed by private come about through plantation establishment of foreign-dominated American investments. The destruction of the existing miniplantation agriculture necessitated peasant freeholders, and fundia land-tenure system with its myriad --- Page 30 --- OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED STATES farmers into latifundian converting these independent tradition was historically implied American liberal democratic farmers; peons. The ideal of independent yeoman have destroyed rooted in the Jeffersonian agriculture in Haiti would characterplantation system introducing and substituted a socioeconomic Likewise, the such a system antidemocratic political regimes. roped together istic of oligarchic, unpaid conscripts were sometimes the British in corvée, in which in the corvée employed by to the in gangs, had its parallel and was obviously antithetical nineteenth-century liberal Egypt values. intendevelopment of American liberal democratic of unThe perversion of professed function of a whole constellation tions was, of course, the well as of the racial and cultural prejufavorable circumstances, as was imposed and mainof the invaders. That the occupation elections, since dices precluded democratic defeat for the tained by force effectively resulted in humiliation and the afterelections would have elections were fnally held in States. When free and moderate candiUnited all pro-American force involved math of the 1929 uprisings, Maintaining the occupation by patterns estabdates lost decisively. who, following miliheavy reliance on military personnel were often inclined toward of lished in prior colonial experience, reflected in the posting occudictation. United States priorities, of all phases of the tary general as supreme commander extractive fiscal managea marine and in the rigorously conservative, consistently placed the interpation ment of Haitian government above money, those of Haiti and correspondingly ests of the United States meaningful Haitian partici- ecofor introducing American narrowed opportunities policy was linked to anticipated focused on developpation. Economic into Haiti, and consequently education for nomic expansion agriculture and manual-technical democratic privileges ment of plantation literacy and famniliarization with all the built-in handicaps the Haitians; Adding to roots for and processes were neglected. the absence of viable, organic conon the American side was Haiti. Behind the façade of democratic a democratic liberalism in lay the national credo Trbweisente-smaentat stitutions and militarism, and class exploitation. and avoid century of political despotism, Haitians had learned to distrust never The vast majority of which always took and gave. contact with the government, democratic privileges ment of plantation literacy and famniliarization with all the built-in handicaps the Haitians; Adding to roots for and processes were neglected. the absence of viable, organic conon the American side was Haiti. Behind the façade of democratic a democratic liberalism in lay the national credo Trbweisente-smaentat stitutions and militarism, and class exploitation. and avoid century of political despotism, Haitians had learned to distrust never The vast majority of which always took and gave. contact with the government, --- Page 31 --- INTRODUCTION difficulties realized from the outset, Despite all the apparent the rhetoriUnited States officials persisted in publicly maintaining misillusion that the occupation was a noble and self-sacrificing cal liberalism. This is not to say that the idealsion to plant democratic most Americans would have liked Doubtless ists were hypocrites. liberalism into Haiti, but the sentiments to introduce democratic irrelevant. The rhetoric of under the circumstances, simply were, based on relations with European powers liberal internationalism, all American foreign policy, was wildly out and SO much a part of factors with respect to Haiti, where SO many contradictory of place were operative. of the American presence in Haiti was maThe dominant theme American efforts to uplift and terialistic rather than idealistic. achievements, technological "civilize" Haiti emphasized material and the cultivation of modernization, organizational efficiency, attitudes. The Occupragmatic as opposed to esthetic or spiritual and public excelled at the construction of roads, hospitals, and pation fit the methods priorities buildings. The materialistic approach and also conformed to Ameridictated by selfish American purposes of political which held that Haitians were incapable can prejudices, achievements. It was hoped that Haiti, despite the and intellectual would be developed into a prosperalleged inferiority of Haitians, leadership and technological with the help of American ous country States would first create what were thought to genius. The United bases for advanced civilization, SO that be the prerequisite material future time might attempt the Haitians at some undetermined subtleties of American political institutions. materialistic uplift in Haiti The American policy of pragmatic, the reform moverooted in aspects of Progressive enwas conceptually States and in models taken mainly from ment in the United The Progressive movement in lightened British colonial experience. based on States had a strong technocratic orientation, the United would come about through increased techthe belief that progress of existing institutions.* With nical efficiency and rationalization States, the Progressive, pragmatic respect to blacks in the United 1895 Atlanta Comproapproach involved Booker T. Washington's cultural, and social aspiramise, with its abnegation of intellectual, education and material tions for blacks in favor of manual-technical aspects of Progressive enwas conceptually States and in models taken mainly from ment in the United The Progressive movement in lightened British colonial experience. based on States had a strong technocratic orientation, the United would come about through increased techthe belief that progress of existing institutions.* With nical efficiency and rationalization States, the Progressive, pragmatic respect to blacks in the United 1895 Atlanta Comproapproach involved Booker T. Washington's cultural, and social aspiramise, with its abnegation of intellectual, education and material tions for blacks in favor of manual-technical --- Page 32 --- OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED STATES These at low-status trades. technothrough efficient performance: in Haiti. The betterment by the Occupation into the concepts were employed of Progressivism had persisted with the efforts cratic, materialistic aspects accelerated, as for instance 1920s and were even Herbert Hoover to increase government posting of Commerce commerce by of Secretary United States foreign missions. In Haiti efficiency in assisting to American diplomatic free rein, agents was given active commercial impulse was technical Progressive a whose culture the materialistic, objects, Haitian "Negroes" to interfere since the human and were not permitted thus beheld in contempt, had no rights designs of the occupiers. Haiti devoid of with the more enlightened isolated technocratic Progressivism, came a test case of with all the stops pulled. and liberal democratic trappings, technical expertise, its commitment to efficiency, methods and models drawn American can be seen in the decision in rational organization The most important in setting up the Occupation. of overall authority to an American upon was the granting official. The marine general this respect instead of a civilian absolute authority military officer high commissioner had the as who served American the civilian facets of Occupation. both the military and the chain of command over of this system was to rationalize military conThe effect civilian-military feuding, to strengthen authority as opby eliminating and to emphasize command with the Haitians. trol of the country, relationship the or participatory cited was posed to a consensual actions most frequently authoriThe model for American which was similarly a rigid occupation of Egypt, commissioner. American British an all-powerful high and the "betarian system run by with British rule in India intention was officials also drew analogies of Porfirio Diaz in Mexico. The for the nevolent" dictatorship regime that would exercise power and backto set up an authoritarian because of their alleged inferiority good of people who, know what was good for themselves. under the wardness, did not Haitian to serve as client-president the In selecting a of the American high commissioner, authority and protection term and social category "Negro" included in Latin discrimination the in Haiti and elsewhere e In American racial of Negroid ancestry, while mulattoes and blacks. The United people of all proportions distinctions were made between disregarding local distinctions. America important its own racial ideology in Haiti, States applied regime that would exercise power and backto set up an authoritarian because of their alleged inferiority good of people who, know what was good for themselves. under the wardness, did not Haitian to serve as client-president the In selecting a of the American high commissioner, authority and protection term and social category "Negro" included in Latin discrimination the in Haiti and elsewhere e In American racial of Negroid ancestry, while mulattoes and blacks. The United people of all proportions distinctions were made between disregarding local distinctions. America important its own racial ideology in Haiti, States applied --- Page 33 --- INTRODUCTION who shared a materialistic, United States settled upon an individual durtechnocratic concept of progress. Louis Borno, client-president was when the American uplift program ing the eight-year period admirer of Mussolini and an advocate in full swing, was an avowed the fastest way to modernize of complete American domination as and efficient governmental Haiti and reconstruct viable economic Haiti in American technologiinstitutions. Borno saw salvation for As a self-styled nacal prowess and disciplined technical efficiency. nationalists who opposed tionalist, he had no sympathy for Haitian Borno repeatedly as offensive to national pride. the occupation nationalist opposition, which included most denounced the Haitian of collaborators, as politically aware Haitians except a minority of the Haitian against the best interests traitors who were conspiring deemed too ignorant to particimasses. The masses, in turn, were the benefits that the pate in political processes or to appreciate occupation was bringing them. ironies of the occupation. While Therein lay one of the principal reform was modern materialistic approach to quite the technical, to the latest deand enlightened in the sense of being comparable the Occupation in velopments in advanced industrial countries, virtue of American already assured of absolute power by Haiti, those elements which indigemilitary presence, lacked precisely movements relied upon to achieve political nous technoprogressive Fascism in Italy and Germany, also dedicated and maintain power. efficiency, was based on mass support to progress through technical public relations techniques, achieved through modern, sophisticated leadership, and ethnic or racial including nationalism, charismatic movement was also elitism. In the United States the Progressive charisma of Teddy Rooseassociated with nationalism, the personal ethnic and racial elitism velt and Woodrow Wilson, and with laws, and exemplified by discrimination against blacks, immigration Haiti these elements proposals for human genetical selectivity. In entailed forinstead of nationalism, the Occupation were lacking: under an autocratic marine general; ineign military domination ethnic and racial elitism, the Americans apstead of'appealing to ethnic and racial contempt; instead of proached Haitians with had client-President Borno, charismatic leadership, the Occupation and who was dewho disparaged his countrymen a man publicly and racial elitism velt and Woodrow Wilson, and with laws, and exemplified by discrimination against blacks, immigration Haiti these elements proposals for human genetical selectivity. In entailed forinstead of nationalism, the Occupation were lacking: under an autocratic marine general; ineign military domination ethnic and racial elitism, the Americans apstead of'appealing to ethnic and racial contempt; instead of proached Haitians with had client-President Borno, charismatic leadership, the Occupation and who was dewho disparaged his countrymen a man publicly --- Page 34 --- OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED STATES all the In effect, the Occupation embodied but was spised as a collaborator. of contemporary Italian fascism, all the technical progressive attributes in human relationships. For crippled by failures and modern rational organization, results. expertise, scientific agriculture, achieved only marginal on time, the Occupation's uplift programs aspiring to make the trains run such as Borno and the Americans, the successes of Mussolini, which the from achieving through were precluded because of the very circumstances they were, held power. elitism failing because of an Occupation of modern technological techniques was The irony modern political in American obtuse lack of complementary Irrationalism effectivecompounded by other contradictions. consistently hampered the racial and cultural prejudices rational uplift measures. The American-nurtured as an effiness of enlightened, rationally and plausibly conceived stunted in Haitian constabulary, force, was irrationally by a peacekeeping as expressed cient, nonpartisan by the American racist dogma, trust a nigger its development that "you can never commander of the Occupation, focusing on manual-technical in 6 Educational policy, education for blacks with a gun." functional racial training similar to contemporary blighted by cultural and of the United States, was variously Hoover sent a distinguished group difficulties. When President Haiti to investigate Haitian education, American educators to the United States Navy black stranded and humiliated because utilizing they were them. American agricultural ventures, by refused to transport in scientific agriculture, were plagued disdain for the latest developments failures attributable to an irrational 1929 the head of a series of disastrous of local peasants. In Haitian peasants the agricultural experience Technique reported that the American Service than American plantations cotton more successfully the Americans prowere growing the latest scientific methods; in the bolls was which employed plants, but the amount of cotton local methods. duced healthier obtained by Haitian farmers using served to underless than that of Jim Crow racial segregation to train Likewise, the policy administrators methods. efforts by American governmental bureaucratic mine subordinates in efficient, rational, limited the effectiveness Haitian cultural antagonisms severely after the Racial and programs. Instead of modeling of progressive development peasants the agricultural experience Technique reported that the American Service than American plantations cotton more successfully the Americans prowere growing the latest scientific methods; in the bolls was which employed plants, but the amount of cotton local methods. duced healthier obtained by Haitian farmers using served to underless than that of Jim Crow racial segregation to train Likewise, the policy administrators methods. efforts by American governmental bureaucratic mine subordinates in efficient, rational, limited the effectiveness Haitian cultural antagonisms severely after the Racial and programs. Instead of modeling of progressive development --- Page 35 --- INTRODUCTION Americans, many Haitians were alienated and condescension. by American arrogance Within the United States, political tion of Haiti raised questions about controversy over the occupasystem, American democratic the American free enterprise can political and social ideals, and the very nature of Ameriimperialism profited a institutions. Anti-imperialists argued that men, while the expenses privileged of minority of American businessborne by all the people. The conquest and military occupation were subjugation of alien peoples invasion of foreign territories and of democracy and individual contradicted basic American doctrines argued that an America bent liberty. Opponents of the occupation a free liberal on foreign conquest could not remain democracy at home, Anti-imperialists ing, James Weldon Johnson, Senators Ernest GruenKing, and Marine Corps General William Borah, and William the marines invaded Haiti Smedley D. Butler charged that Bank of New York. as bill collectors for the National of forced labor for Marine suppression of Haitian revolts and City use ties by Republican military road building were denounced as atrociDemocratic politicians seeking to discredit the incumbent administration in 1920. The character of the Occupation, the absolutely authoritarian suppression of local democratic unchallenged military dictation, newspaper editors prompted institutions, and jailings of Haitian idealists who saw in the vigorous denunciations from American can political morality. occupation a dangerous breach in AmeriImperialists answered gression and military conquest by denunciations of agburden" and citing benefits that alluding to the "white man's part of America's enlightened subject peoples would receive as progressivism by the sword. crusade to spread democracy and In sum, the occupation of Haiti was both America's quest for empire and a logical extension of contradictions involved in that a clear example of many of the tions were by no means quest for empire. These contradicconflicts between American successfully resolved in Haiti-indeed, the tween democratic racism and rational progressivism, bemissionary zeal and egalitarianism and military conquest, and between exacerbated. At the economic exploitation were, in some same time, American ways, ceptible changes during the course of the policy underwent peroccupation, adapting to democracy and In sum, the occupation of Haiti was both America's quest for empire and a logical extension of contradictions involved in that a clear example of many of the tions were by no means quest for empire. These contradicconflicts between American successfully resolved in Haiti-indeed, the tween democratic racism and rational progressivism, bemissionary zeal and egalitarianism and military conquest, and between exacerbated. At the economic exploitation were, in some same time, American ways, ceptible changes during the course of the policy underwent peroccupation, adapting to --- Page 36 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 new pressures of nationalism abroad and opposition to military expansion at home. The occupation began as a military invasion and ended as a conspicuous and presumably final renunciation of interventionism. American withdrawal from Haiti in 1934 was hailed as a positive affirmation of the new Good Neighbor policy in Latin America. --- Page 37 --- Haiti before the Intervention the western third of the island of The Republic of Haiti occupies the Windward Passage Hispaniola, which lies sixty miles across with the Province in Cuba. Haiti shares Hispaniola from Oriente The land area of Haiti is approximately oneDominican Republic. the state of New Jersey. In 1915 Haiti's third greater than that of million the vast majority population was estimated at two persons, independent farming. of whom earned their livelihood at small-scale city, had a population of Port-au-Prince, the capital and only large of the population was about 100,000. From 95 to 97 percent illiterate." States, Haiti is the oldest independent nation After the United Independence was achieved during in the Western Hemisphere. slave revolt led by Tousthe French Revolution after a protracted both of whom had saint Louverture and Jean Jacques Dessalines, defeated an slaves. Under Dessalines, black slaves decisively been of French troops commanded by Napoleon's impressive contingent Leclerc. On January 1, 1804, revolutionary brother-in-law General the new nation. The French chiefs met at Gonaives and proclaimed discarded in favor of the colonial name of Saint Domingue was aboriginal term "Haiti," meaning land of mountains. was the At the time of the French Revolution, Saint Domingue As early colonial possession in the Americas. wealthiest European Jean Jacques Dessalines, defeated an slaves. Under Dessalines, black slaves decisively been of French troops commanded by Napoleon's impressive contingent Leclerc. On January 1, 1804, revolutionary brother-in-law General the new nation. The French chiefs met at Gonaives and proclaimed discarded in favor of the colonial name of Saint Domingue was aboriginal term "Haiti," meaning land of mountains. was the At the time of the French Revolution, Saint Domingue As early colonial possession in the Americas. wealthiest European --- Page 38 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED exceeded that of of Saint Domingue as 1742 the sugar production the eve of the revolution the all the British West Indies, and one-third on of the foreign commerce colony accounted for more than Saint amounted In 1789 French trade with Domingue of France." of colonial trade totaled to 211 million, while the whole England's the of Saint Domingue only 25 million. In the same year ports and France number than Marseilles, received 1,587 ships, a greater the Saint Domingue trade." The employed 750 ships exclusively for coffee, cotton, indigo, mochief exports of the colony were sugar, network of The French built an elaborate lasses, and dyewoods. plantations. Wealthy roads, irrigation systems, and magnificent rudiments of urbane French French creoles had also established the had been known Français, later renamed Cap Haitien, culture-Cap as the Paris of the Antilles. on the eve of the French The population of Saint Domingue black slaves, with whites Revolution was made up of over 90 percent of 519,000. only about 40,000 out of a total population whom were numbering also about 20,000 free mulattoes, many of There were Slavery in Saint Domingue had been educated and prosperous." whipping, mutilation, and particularly brutal, with commonplace marked by atrocities torture, and the war for independence was of French troops, the all sides. With the defeat and withdrawal on either emigrated, in part to South Carolina white French colonists by the newly independent Haiand Louisiana, or were massacred for independence left Haiti tians. The colonial period and struggle and antagonism, plus a perwith a confused legacy of racial pride colonial caste system, fear of white encroachment. The rigid sisting of white blood determined social status, perin which admixture mulattoes continued to enjoy social sisted to the extent that Haitian and economic advantages over blacks. society." e The free Independent Haiti emerged as a segmented mostly mulattoes but de couleur of colonial Saint Domingue, values of gens blacks, had adopted the cultural also including some despite their having been subjected dominant white French society the whites. Wealthy gens de to vicious racial discrimination by and some of the details in the following a I am indebted for many of the concepts Variants in Caribbean Race Relations: A Contridiscussion to H. Hoetink, The Two Societies (London, 1967). bution to the Soclology of Segmented ociety." e The free Independent Haiti emerged as a segmented mostly mulattoes but de couleur of colonial Saint Domingue, values of gens blacks, had adopted the cultural also including some despite their having been subjected dominant white French society the whites. Wealthy gens de to vicious racial discrimination by and some of the details in the following a I am indebted for many of the concepts Variants in Caribbean Race Relations: A Contridiscussion to H. Hoetink, The Two Societies (London, 1967). bution to the Soclology of Segmented --- Page 39 --- HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION children to France for education and sought to couleur sent their emulation of white society, while themselves by successful prove exhibiting the same virulent race prejudice against simultaneously themselves were subjected to by the whites. black slaves that they according to lightness of skin White racist values ascribed status in other areas where Europepigmentation. In Saint Domingue, as were made according ans enslaved Africans, subtle differentiations half-castes. The physical norms to degrees of white ancestry among of French colonial society were of the dominant white segment Haiti by the gens de couleur, who carried over into independent a much larger number an educated elite among now constituted slaves. As in colonial Saint Domingue, where of illiterate former black slaves hated each other, racial the gens de couleur and the elite and the black peasantry of antagonism persisted between Haiti. or "plural" society, with "difHaiti's emergence as a "segmented" living side by side, but separately, ferent sections of the community of differences unit, " was marked by a range within the same political from the peasant masses." American clearly separating the elite The Haitian People scholar James G. Leyburn, in his incisive study between the elite (1941), went SO far as to describe the division the term "caste" is probWhile and the masses as a "caste" system. and since the elite are not strictly endogamous ably not warranted in the direction of homogenization, the Haiti has moved historically stature testifies to the use of the term by a scholar of Leyburn's The key to segmentasharpness of the cleavage in Haitian society. dominant white French tion was the retention of the previously white somatic norms cultural orientation by the elite, including even elite included the whole which were all the more awkward since the black. While not an of skin pigmentation from white to attrirange lightness of skin pigmentation was a desired exclusive factor, and served the elite, especially in marriage partners, bute among the elite, which were criterion which distinguished as a physical the masses, who were predominantly largely mulatto, from peasant black. of the elite from the masses was defned and The separation interrelated distinguishmaintained by a whole series of contingent, education, religion, and life ing characteristics including language, which were all the more awkward since the black. While not an of skin pigmentation from white to attrirange lightness of skin pigmentation was a desired exclusive factor, and served the elite, especially in marriage partners, bute among the elite, which were criterion which distinguished as a physical the masses, who were predominantly largely mulatto, from peasant black. of the elite from the masses was defned and The separation interrelated distinguishmaintained by a whole series of contingent, education, religion, and life ing characteristics including language, --- Page 40 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED about 3 percent of the populastyle. Basically, the elite, comprising France for inspiration and tion, looked to Europe and especially while the masses were disavowed all African and black associations, African and European herinvolved in a unique acculturation of Republic and Puerto Rico, itages. Unlike the neighboring Dominican of African culture were where language, religion, and elements of color and class, Haiti was shared by the whole society regardless two the There were languages, divided into two distinct segments. elite and Haitian Creole, a disofficial French used by the literate on Norman French, of obscure origins, based largely tinct language Until recently no effort was made to transcribe spoken by the masses. involving the French lanHaitian Creole into writing. Literacy, of the elite, and formal education were the special preserves functions guage, which dominated urban, commercial, and govermental of political and military ascendancy irrespective of the frequent sophisticated EuroThe elite, emulating black peasant strongmen. literature, and the learned profespean society, cultivated poetry, form of manual labor. Haiti became sions, while disdaining any member of the elite to work known as the land of poets. For a subsisted by means of with his hands was anathema. The rural masses in their life style as opposed manual labor and were essentially to the urbanity of the elite. between the elite Differences in religion epitomized the distance and maintained and the masses. The elite were practicing Catholics imported which was serviced by the Catholic church establishment, The peasant masses practiced white French priests and teachers. vodun and voodoo. Accordthe folk religion vodoun, also known as of Haitians are Catholic and ing to a popular anecdote, 90 vodoun. percent Vodoun is a fluid agglomera100 percent are believers in elements which has no organized priesttion of African and Catholic liturgy. It was permanent church buildings, or documented hood, despite the nominal allegiance pervasive in the Haitian countryside Catholic church, and, because of its that most Haitians had to the (overtly at least) African and black derivation, was considered has served historically repulsive and vulgar by the elite. Vodoun point for mass bulwark of Haitian folk culture and as a rallying as a foreign domination. In colonial political action and resistance against medium by which slaves mainSaint Domingue, vodoun was the priesttion of African and Catholic liturgy. It was permanent church buildings, or documented hood, despite the nominal allegiance pervasive in the Haitian countryside Catholic church, and, because of its that most Haitians had to the (overtly at least) African and black derivation, was considered has served historically repulsive and vulgar by the elite. Vodoun point for mass bulwark of Haitian folk culture and as a rallying as a foreign domination. In colonial political action and resistance against medium by which slaves mainSaint Domingue, vodoun was the --- Page 41 --- HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION tained their common the identity and conspiratorial liaisons. precursor of Toussaint and Dessalines whose Macandal, thwarted, achieved influence as a 1758 uprising was conceived and prophet and sorcerer who then death at the hands organized of the a plan to poison all the whites. After his a vodoun Papa-Loa. Vodoun French, Macandal lived on mystically as and establishing played a vital part in generating fervor of independence. communications between blacks during the Haitian scholar Jean war "1804 est issu du Vodou.": Price-Mars has stated that again during the guerrilla During the war for independence and 1919, Haitian soldiers, often war against United States Marines in into battle wearing vodoun conspicuous for their bravery, went off enemy bullets. The white charms which were thought to ward marines, realizing the French clergy and later the American sistance of the importance of vodoun in the masses to foreign impervious reto prevent ceremonies and outlaw encroachments, tried unsuccessfully Because of cultural vodoun. pluralism, the cause a tremendous crisis in Haitian American occupation would In 1915 the elite still retained their society, especially for the elite. pride in impressive emulation of European orientation and took while simultaneously refned white Western culture, white American scorning peasant Africanisms. Contact with "niggers" marines, who treated all Haitians as according to American usage of the "Negroes" or categorical distinction between blacks and terms, making no educated and illiterate Haitians, mulattoes or between In reaction to the came as quite a shock to the elite. lectuals of the occupation many elite, especially young intelgénération de white French orientation and Toccupation, renounced the former heritage embodied in the turned instead to the black African ethnic awareness, culture of the masses. The new black nomenon of eventually culminating in the international négritude, has been a pheical and cultural life. Haitian continuing factor in Haitian politarticles on Haitian president François Duvalier wrote and later ethnology as a young man during the adroit emerged as a champion of black occupation use of vodoun as a political force has nationalism. been Duvalier's having bridged the long-standing credited with the masses. The gap between the government and the segmentation of Haitian society, which dynamic factor in SO many of these has been events, was based upon the négritude, has been a pheical and cultural life. Haitian continuing factor in Haitian politarticles on Haitian president François Duvalier wrote and later ethnology as a young man during the adroit emerged as a champion of black occupation use of vodoun as a political force has nationalism. been Duvalier's having bridged the long-standing credited with the masses. The gap between the government and the segmentation of Haitian society, which dynamic factor in SO many of these has been events, was based upon the --- Page 42 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF racial and cultural HAITI, 1915-1934 experience. heritage left over from the French colonial The great wealth of colonial Saint stroyed during the Domingue was largely degradually deteriorated protracted war for independence. What remained Haitian rule. through years of neglect under Abandoned plantations and independent ruin. French roads, sugar mills crumbled to Large-scale aqueducts, and irrigation systems fell into disuse. agriculture, which had been the basis of duction, was replaced by independent colonial progreat plantations were broken into subsistence farming. The former slaves who became up small plots and farmed by holdings and were passionately attached to their individual for wages. 8 Peasants, correspondingly unenthusiastic about working times minute especially in the mountains, used their somefruits which holdings to raise a wide variety of were largely consumed within the vegetables and surplus remained after home household. Whatever the women, who, after the West consumption was taken to market by role in a complicated African pattern, played the leading tion of trading marketing system that featured punctual rotacenters, an elaborate system of commerce, and intense wholesale and retail Agricultural production competition and pride in trading skills. with resembled West African respect to cooperative field work for practices, notably vation and clearing land, but heavy tasks such as cultialso employed. Peasants European tools and techniques were planted by the continued to pick coffee beans from French, but cultivation was limited bushes coffee crop was picked wild. Sugar and and most of the Independent Haiti was generally indigo production ceased. The country had no foreign isolated from the outside world. sion and repossession sponsors or allies. Fear of French invanineteenth century, and dominated Haitian politics during the French. a series of fortresses were early The most spectacular of these built to repel the Henry was the famous Christophe, one of the architectural Citadel of bean, which has walls up to 30 feet thick wonders of the Caribcostly military preparations and 270 feet high. All the invasion failed to proved unnecessary as the expected materialize, and Haitian gies to civil wars and periodic rulers shifted their enerDomingo. The threat of French incursions into neighboring Santo to rest with the signing of an military invasion was finally laid agreement between Haiti and Charles early The most spectacular of these built to repel the Henry was the famous Christophe, one of the architectural Citadel of bean, which has walls up to 30 feet thick wonders of the Caribcostly military preparations and 270 feet high. All the invasion failed to proved unnecessary as the expected materialize, and Haitian gies to civil wars and periodic rulers shifted their enerDomingo. The threat of French incursions into neighboring Santo to rest with the signing of an military invasion was finally laid agreement between Haiti and Charles --- Page 43 --- HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION Haitian independence in X of France in 1824. France recognized commercial concessions and return for the granting of extensive former indemnity to compensate payment of a 150-million-franc adjusted to a more reasoncolonists. The indemnity was eventually series of loans, but indebtedness able sum and was refunded by a of Haitian govFrance continued to shackle the fiscal operations to extracted as the price of independernments. The initial indemnity, financial crises in Haiti ence from France, was the basis of perennial for the next century. Haiti found itself in difficult cirFrom the outset, independent which emerged from its war cumstances. Unlike the United States, with stable political institutions, a fundamentally for independence immediate colonial history of quasi sound economy, and with an of national unity and independence during which the requisites Haiti enjoyed viability had been firmly established, independent obstacles. Not and was faced with myriad almost no advantages resulted in widespread only had the Haitian war for independence but the departure of death and near total physical devastation, administrators and skilled French colonists left Haiti without trained craftsmen. the northern half of the new nation devolved upon Leadership of lacked in political adminblack military strongmen who experience the French colonists istration, while in the south mulattoes replaced the death and expulsion the dominant political force. In effect, as eliminated the entire governing class and left of the white colonials which had been deliberately uneducated slave population, a largely and brutal servitude, to fend for itself. The held in the most menial urban and administrative functions. small, educated elite dominated included a tradition of hostility The legacy of French colonialism and immorality authority, a tendency toward corruption to political the example of ostentatious display of in public and private life, for sanitation and cleanliwealth, and a notorious lack of concern decadence in white colonial ness in colonial urban centers. Moral scandals in the Catholic church social and political life, plus frequent inclination to revolt against the auestablishment and the colonial of mother country, established a heritage political thority of the that survived the war for independence. instability and corruption Haiti were cited Evidence of similar characteristics in independent of French colonialism and immorality authority, a tendency toward corruption to political the example of ostentatious display of in public and private life, for sanitation and cleanliwealth, and a notorious lack of concern decadence in white colonial ness in colonial urban centers. Moral scandals in the Catholic church social and political life, plus frequent inclination to revolt against the auestablishment and the colonial of mother country, established a heritage political thority of the that survived the war for independence. instability and corruption Haiti were cited Evidence of similar characteristics in independent --- Page 44 --- 1915-1984 OCCUPATION OF HAITI, UNITED STATES racial of Haitian American observers as indications served as by European and colonial system of racial discrimination that figinferiority. The rivalry and social stratification of political the basis for mulatto-black civil wars and periods in subsequent ured prominently and obstacles in foreign turmoil. additional disadvantages ties with Haiti faced diplomacy. Commercial and international the war for independence. commerce were broken during the planFrance and Europe which had been based on large-scale The heavy Haitian export trade, of the colonial period, was destroyed. burden for a new tation agriculture to France was an overwhelming and served to drain off indebtedness viable in any case, faced a hostile nation that was barely relations Haiti and revenues. In international and former slaves, any surplus Haitians as Negroes For their part, world which disparaged of the Haitian slave revolt. and refused feared the example jealous of their independence From Haitians were extremely the old plantation economy. Haiti. The allow foreigners to reestablish to own land in to foreigners were forbidden while the population multithe beginning, remained stagnant, Haitian economy and direction. While plied. internal politics lacked cohesiveness of the French Revolution Haitian and egalitarian ideology the ideals were never the democratic adopted by the infant nation, 1806 established legiswas officially The Constitution of styled the translated into reality. branches of a government retained and judicial of was lative, executive, Haiti. This basic form government century Republic of instance in the mid-nineteenth The thereafter, except for one proclaimed himself emperor. Revoluwhen President Faustin Soulouque taken from the French and inup to slogan rmotremntremes proclamations Haitian appeared on Haitian government In reality tion, the time of the American occupation. small elite, and by a cluding dominated by the numerically the politics were strongmen who controlled after presidency. independsuccession of military who ruled the country themselves in The series of strongmen with maintaining period sevence were usually preoccupied rivals. During the early held power by beating off numerous Jean Pierre Boyer (1818-43), of political eral presidents, most notably and achieved a measure office for prolonged periods es proclamations Haitian appeared on Haitian government In reality tion, the time of the American occupation. small elite, and by a cluding dominated by the numerically the politics were strongmen who controlled after presidency. independsuccession of military who ruled the country themselves in The series of strongmen with maintaining period sevence were usually preoccupied rivals. During the early held power by beating off numerous Jean Pierre Boyer (1818-43), of political eral presidents, most notably and achieved a measure office for prolonged periods --- Page 45 --- HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION stability. Thereafter, however, stable and fell easily to governments were increasingly unfrom the founding of the revolutionary movements. In the period vention in 1915, Republic in 1806 to the American interthrown by revolution. seventeen of twenty-four presidents were overOnly two of the fully at the ends of their terms, and eleven twenty-four retired peaceyear each. served for less than one Haiti figured prominently in United States internal sectional conflicts, and in fitful foreign policy and American race problem. The attitude of attempts to resolve the Haiti during Haiti's struggle for the United States toward years of independence separation from France and was heavily influenced early fear with which Southern by the revulsion and cessful slave revolt. Americans viewed the specter of a sucPresident John Adams Despite the misgivings of Southern planters, ture during Toussaint's gave decisive naval aid to Toussaint LouverAdams's civil war against Haitian mulattoes in policy was determined not 1800. slave revolt but by the cireumstances by sympathy for the Haitian France and efforts to maintain of America's quasi war with War of the Second Coalition. American neutral rights during the in the naval United States Marines participated mulatto rival, engagements which ensured the defeat of Toussaint's ments in Haitian foreshadowing affairs. a prolonged series of future involveWhile American helped to establish the intervention in 1800 neither independence of Toussaint, the United recognized this States establishment of peace between independence the nor supported it. The re1800 caused American relations United States and France in American interest in the fate of with Toussaint to cool. sharply with Napoleon's the Haitian slave revolt increased dispatch of a reconquest under General Leclerc in 30,000-man French army of Jefferson knew, this 1801. As President Thomas army was to proceed to regained Saint Domingue. Napoleon's Louisiana after it had empire based on Spain's cession of attempt to establish a western of course, a grave threat to the United Louisiana to France in 1800, was, venture depended upon the States. Success of the French which would again become speedy the recovery of Saint Domingue, World. Toussaint Louverture, French stronghold in the New Southern planters, became despite the continued hostility of America's first line of defense. Toussaint knew, this 1801. As President Thomas army was to proceed to regained Saint Domingue. Napoleon's Louisiana after it had empire based on Spain's cession of attempt to establish a western of course, a grave threat to the United Louisiana to France in 1800, was, venture depended upon the States. Success of the French which would again become speedy the recovery of Saint Domingue, World. Toussaint Louverture, French stronghold in the New Southern planters, became despite the continued hostility of America's first line of defense. Toussaint --- Page 46 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1984 UNITED and died in a French prison, but Leclerc's himself was captured fever and defeat in battle. eventually succumbed to yellow with army defeat of French troops in Saint Domingue, coupled The caused Napoleon to abandon his effort French difficulties in Europe, In 1803 France sold Louisiana to establish a New World empire. of the Haitian slave revolt was a to the United States. The success sell and thus decision to Louisiana, critical factor in Napoleon's event in American history." figured as an important attitude the United States should assume The question of what the subject of a bitter political toward newly independent Haiti was and Southern planters. New contest between New England traders fish and buying moEngland merchants, concerned with selling involved with colonial lasses, were the Americans most directly interests and independent Haiti. New England Saint Domingue of Haiti and the establishment of diploargued for the recognition planters, appalled by matic relations and commercial ties. Southern sought to use American the example of a successful slave revolt, The Southern view prediplomatic pressure to quarantine Haiti. interests, until vailed, despite continuing agitation by New England led in the House of Representatives the Civil War. Abolitionists, used the issue of Haitian recognition as by John Quincy Adams, constant pressure on the South in one of their devices for keeping House debates. reacted to the agitation for recognition by Southern spokesmen threat to internal order in the pointing to Haiti as a dangerous of South Carolina stated United States. Senator Robert Y. Hayne is We never can in 1825: "Our policy with regard to Hayti plain. and safety of acknowledge her independence . - . which the discuss." peace of our Union forbids us to even a large portion Thomas Hart Benton argued that the In a similar vein, Senator and the acceptance of black amhonoring of Haiti by recognition to be a reward for the murder bassadors and consuls would appear slaves."" The specter of a successof masters and mistresses by black Southern planters ful slave revolt was raised again and again by merchants and aboliand, despite an effective alliance of Northern never a serious possidiplomatic recognition of Haiti was tionists, the South remained in the Union. bility sO long as the only major maritime power to persist The United States was a large portion Thomas Hart Benton argued that the In a similar vein, Senator and the acceptance of black amhonoring of Haiti by recognition to be a reward for the murder bassadors and consuls would appear slaves."" The specter of a successof masters and mistresses by black Southern planters ful slave revolt was raised again and again by merchants and aboliand, despite an effective alliance of Northern never a serious possidiplomatic recognition of Haiti was tionists, the South remained in the Union. bility sO long as the only major maritime power to persist The United States was --- Page 47 --- HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION in ostracizing Haiti, although other ing full-scale diplomatic nations were slow in establishalmost a quarter century representation. before France recognized Haiti French colonies, and Britain established officially abolishing slavery in relations Emancipation Act of 1833. The United States shortly after the with Haiti but persisted in denying continued to trade government retaliated by formal recognition. The Haitian imposing a charge on duties payable by American discriminatory 10 percent surports. vessels entering Haitian American refusal to accord recognition to American postures regarding the institution Haiti was based upon of free blacks. The same of slavery and the status cans to use Haiti as a site considerations for led to attempts by Amerifreedmen were considered colonization of former slaves. Since cause of white racial unassimilable in the United States beJefferson, argued that prejudices, they should some Americans, notably Thomas American Colonization be encouraged to emigrate. The effort in this direction Society, founded in 1817, made a significant by free was a logical alternative to dispatching Africa blacks to Liberia. Haiti cially since the Haitian as a site for colonization, espeto encourage the government at various times actively sought 1820s, 13,000 black immigration of American freedmen. During the ment failed as the Americans emigrated to Haiti, but the experitive, exclusive elite emigrants and discovered that Haiti, with its exploixenophobic tages over the United States. peasantry, offered few advanthe United States, and Many of the emigrants returned to A second major plans for further colonization were effort at colonization in dropped. the 1860s by the Lincoln Haiti was undertaken in time advocate of colonization, administration. President Lincoln, a longUnited States agreed to a contract the government to pay $50 per to committing concessionaire for settling up to 50,000 person an American dred freedmen sailed from Fortress freedmen in Haiti. Five hunIle à Vache off the southern Monroe in 1863 and settled on into a fiasco because of coast of Haiti, but the venture turned to exploit the emigrants mismanagement by the and unscrupulous attempts agent sent by the Lincoln administration American concessionaire. A special maltreatment discovered to investigate rumors of shelter, but an ample grossly inadequate provisions for food and supply of stocks, leg chains, and handcuffs. for settling up to 50,000 person an American dred freedmen sailed from Fortress freedmen in Haiti. Five hunIle à Vache off the southern Monroe in 1863 and settled on into a fiasco because of coast of Haiti, but the venture turned to exploit the emigrants mismanagement by the and unscrupulous attempts agent sent by the Lincoln administration American concessionaire. A special maltreatment discovered to investigate rumors of shelter, but an ample grossly inadequate provisions for food and supply of stocks, leg chains, and handcuffs. --- Page 48 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 Those freedmen who survived Army transport and returned were rescued by a United States debacle, the Haitian to America. After the Ile à Vache schemes, and American government lost interest in colonization of blacks. policy shifted to retention and assimilation With hostile Southern planters absent United States finally granted by virtue of secession, the with Liberia, in 1862. The North diplomatic recognition to Haiti, along tage during the Civil War, proceeded to use Haiti to advanHaitien and procuring establishing a coaling station at Cap Haiti's technical special privileges in Haitian ports. Despite Haitian neutrality, Union warships were ports as bases for operations allowed to use and blockade runners. against Confederate raiders While racism had been the most Haitian policy, the strategic important factor in United States Haiti, became manifestly importance of the West Indies, and of given the attempts by apparent during the Civil War, especially temporary American France, Britain, and Spain to capitalize on Dominican Republic. weakness by intervening in Mexico and the ested in Actually, the United States had been obtaining a West Indian naval base as interyears following the Civil War a number early as 1849. In the secure a base at Samana Bay in the of attempts were made to President Andrew Johnson Dominican Republic. In 1868 and the Dominican proposed the annexation of both Haiti Ulysses Grant Republic, and the following year signed an agreement President the Dominican Republic, but calling for the annexation of Senate. While American efforts Grant's treaty was rejected by the in the Iate 1860s had focused to procure a Caribbean naval base harbor at Mole-Saint-Nicolas mainly on Samana Bay, the Haitian 1869 Grant ordered a naval also came up for consideration. In site for an American officer to survey the Môle as a possible base, and the resulting report was Mole-Saint-Nicolas had a deep and favorable. the eighteenth century had been known well-protected harbor, and in Caribbean. Despite its as the Gibraltar of the administrations declined many advantages, both Johnson and Grant to cede the Môle to the repeated United offers by Haitian revolutionaries Haiti's civil wars of 1866-69. States in return for assistance in Instead, American policy was directed also came up for consideration. In site for an American officer to survey the Môle as a possible base, and the resulting report was Mole-Saint-Nicolas had a deep and favorable. the eighteenth century had been known well-protected harbor, and in Caribbean. Despite its as the Gibraltar of the administrations declined many advantages, both Johnson and Grant to cede the Môle to the repeated United offers by Haitian revolutionaries Haiti's civil wars of 1866-69. States in return for assistance in Instead, American policy was directed --- Page 49 --- HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION toward keeping clear of Haiti's simultaneously myriad internal problems while making sure that neither cured the Môle. Britain nor France proIn the late 1880s, after a a Haitian base was revived twenty-year by lapse, American interest in sea power. Secretary of State proponents of American "big navy" of commercial James G. Blaine, a strong advocate expansion and the chant marine, made a development of an American merSaint-Nicolas vigorous attempt to obtain lease as a naval base, During the of Môleengaged in a number of intrigues with years 1889-91, Blaine maintained constant Haitian revolutionaries and the Môle to the United pressure on the Haitian government to cede which at one point States. Despite Blaine's elaborate plans, holding contemplated a display of American naval target practice in Port-au-Prince forces Cabinet deliberated, the Haitian Bay while the Haitian bow to American threats. Blaine failed government adamantly refused to was unwilling to use force and to take the Môle because he intrigues in Haiti were because his unsavory diplomatic hampered by the of Douglass as American minister to Haiti. presence Frederick With increasing emphasis on American naval 1890s and the subsequent building of the expansion in the States retained a strong interest in Panama Canal, the United strategic importance of Haiti. In Mole-Saint-Nicolas 1897 and in the Mahan, mastermind of American Captain Alfred Thayer and pointed to the strategic sea power, surveyed the Caribbean but selected Guantânamo importance of the Windward Passage, most desirable site for a Bay, Cuba, rather than the Môle, as the establish navy base. While the a resident military United States did not can presence in Haiti prior to warships were active in Haitian waters 1915, Amerinineteenth and early twentieth throughout the late ports to protect American lives centuries. Navy ships visited Haitian 1869, 1876, 1888, 1889, 1892, and property" in 1857, 1859, 1868, 1908, 1909, 1911, 1912, and 1913.12 1902, 1903, 1904, 1905, 1906, 1907, diplomatic relations, the American Despite the establishment of cordial. In 1888 Assistant attitude toward Haiti was not to Haiti as "a public Secretary of State Alvey A. Adee referred over Haiti's nuisance at our doors." 18 Disdain and strategic position in the Caribbean were the main concern fea- 1859, 1868, 1908, 1909, 1911, 1912, and 1913.12 1902, 1903, 1904, 1905, 1906, 1907, diplomatic relations, the American Despite the establishment of cordial. In 1888 Assistant attitude toward Haiti was not to Haiti as "a public Secretary of State Alvey A. Adee referred over Haiti's nuisance at our doors." 18 Disdain and strategic position in the Caribbean were the main concern fea- --- Page 50 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 tures of United States policy in the late nineteenth eth centuries. These tendencies and early twentiBoth principal culminated in the 1915 intervention. spheres of United States Caribbean and the foreign expansion, the The intense Pacific, were hotly contested by other rivalry characteristic of modern powers. especially to the Pacific and the imperialism applied areas, were among the last places Caribbean, which, as marginal powers in the late nineteenth open to incursions by foreign with European century. The United States clashed rivals, especially United States as a late entry in the Germany, which paralleled the and prestige, in Samoa in 1889 and scramble for imperial power the several decades in the Caribbean throughout for domination involved preceding World War I. In Haiti the contest The French the United States, France, and had retained a strong influence in Haiti. Germany. Franco-Haitian agreement, whereby France The 1824 dependence in return for payment of recognized Haitian inFrance in a dominant a large indemnity, placed The 1824 position in Haitian commerce and indemnity was refunded by French finance. and 1910, with Haiti loans in 1875, 1896, of this burdensome maintaining a remarkable record of payment intervention in 1915. debt, never defaulting until after the American Haiti's diligence in despite a weak economy, frequent meeting debt payments numerous instances of default revolutions, and the example of may be attributed by other Latin-American Haiti's to its continuing fear of foreign countries foreign debt, held mainly by French intervention. to about $21.5 million in 1915,4 bondholders, amounted The 1824 Franco-Haitian commercial agreement had provided for privileges in addition to the generous merchants enjoyed a 50 percent indemnification. French duties. French commercial preferential reduction in Haitian by the United States, privileges in Haiti were deeply resented favored-nation which was trying to establish the mostica. The principle as the basis of foreign trade in special French position in Latin Ameruntil the various privileges Haitian commerce continued occupation. Under the 1907 were rescinded during the American Haiti granted France Franco-Haitian commercial convention return only most-favored-nation special tariff preferences, while receiving in treatment. 15 French advantages in emnification. French duties. French commercial preferential reduction in Haitian by the United States, privileges in Haiti were deeply resented favored-nation which was trying to establish the mostica. The principle as the basis of foreign trade in special French position in Latin Ameruntil the various privileges Haitian commerce continued occupation. Under the 1907 were rescinded during the American Haiti granted France Franco-Haitian commercial convention return only most-favored-nation special tariff preferences, while receiving in treatment. 15 French advantages in --- Page 51 --- HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION and commerce were augmented by French ownerHaitian finance chartered in 1880, which ship and control of the Banque Nationale, bank and also served as commercial became the country's leading the government treasury. France as a market for the leadHaiti was also dependent upon coffee. Haitian coffee, which had a ing Haitian export commodity, was especially appreciated distinct aroma, strength, and smoothness, French over France. The Haitians, for their part, preferred in preceding the American American tobacco. In the years immediately went to France, intervention roughly half of Haiti's total exports of accounted for only about 10 percent while French products 1911 to 1913 Haitian exports to France Haitian imports. In the years as $2.2 million amounted to $21 million for the three years, against the French from France." Haiti's heavy dependence on of imports amount of French sales market and the relatively inconsequential advantage in procuring in Haiti gave France a strong bargaining preferential commercial privileges. in Haiti, French culcivilization prevailed Insofar as European French was the official language tural influence was predominant. and precision by the elite. of the country and was used with care which mark of education and status separated Correct French was a of the population. Haitian Creole, the user from the vast majority French vocabuspoken by the masses, was based largely on Norman fashions and sent their lary and syntax. The elite followed French to the time children to France for education. Haitian literature, up French writers followed styles set by of the American intervention, Haitian Catholic church, after a conThe of preceding generations. in the 1860s, was staffed by French priests cordat with the Papacy and missionaries. Up to the time of who also served as educators Haitians prided themselves on the American occupation, educated African associations. their French culture and repudiated inclinations toward official pomp, The Haitian elite shared French of the elite took an active interconversation, and politics. Members office irrespective of their est in politics and aspired to high political institutions were modeled vocational backgrounds. Haitian political looked to the French Revolution after those of France, and Haitians Haitian stated the of Haitian liberty. One prominent as birthplace mother country of the black race, because that France was the who also served as educators Haitians prided themselves on the American occupation, educated African associations. their French culture and repudiated inclinations toward official pomp, The Haitian elite shared French of the elite took an active interconversation, and politics. Members office irrespective of their est in politics and aspired to high political institutions were modeled vocational backgrounds. Haitian political looked to the French Revolution after those of France, and Haitians Haitian stated the of Haitian liberty. One prominent as birthplace mother country of the black race, because that France was the --- Page 52 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED the black race was ever a citizen, he was the first time that a man of of our race was ever an officer, a French citizen; the first time that a man birthright, where is it found? he was a French officer. And our national of the Rights of Man? 17 Was it not in France, in the Declaration remained sensitive to any threat of French encroachWhile Haiti France held a special place of affecment on Haitian independence, and suppressed their own tion for the Haitian elite, which ignored of in colonial Saint identification with the horrors slavery historical the elite sought to achieve international respect Domingue. Indeed, emulating French for Haiti and the Negroid race by successfully culture. established by virtue of strong historical The French were firmly became increasingly importies, but after 1900 German merchants Germany, as a nascent and tant in Haitian internal commerce. the United States as aggressive imperial power, was considered by come to its chief rival in the Caribbean. German entrepreneurs and wholesale merthemselves as traders Haiti and established Haitian women in order to circumchants. The Germans married and against alien landownership vent the Haitian prohibition and several founded resident German colonies in Port-au-Prince resident FrenchHaitian cities. As was the case with the few other socially with the Haitian elite. men, the Germans intermingled the Germans a strong This racial and cultural fraternization gave competition. HaiAmerican commercial advantage over potential and French society, while received into German tians were generally painful when Haitians visited contacts with Americans, especially racial prejudice and Jim Crow the United States, were blighted by social barriers. created a progeny of GermanoBy intermarrying the Germans tie with the fatherland. In 1912 Haitians that ensured a continuing funds from the Imperial Foreign a German school, supported by According to a speech Office, was established in Port-au-Prince. the intent was the German minister at the school opening, made by descendants of Germans established in Haiti," to "Germanize the the 18 Children of Germanoand to inculcate attachment to emperor. for their education. By Haitian parents were sent back to Germany , were blighted by social barriers. created a progeny of GermanoBy intermarrying the Germans tie with the fatherland. In 1912 Haitians that ensured a continuing funds from the Imperial Foreign a German school, supported by According to a speech Office, was established in Port-au-Prince. the intent was the German minister at the school opening, made by descendants of Germans established in Haiti," to "Germanize the the 18 Children of Germanoand to inculcate attachment to emperor. for their education. By Haitian parents were sent back to Germany --- Page 53 --- HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION and Germano-Haitians in Haiti, and 1915 there were 210 Germans residences." 19 German business houses and private many mainly in wholesale merchandisThe Germans in Haiti engaged and utilities. In 1914 a ing, but branched out into finance Germans public controlled 80 perofficer estimated that State Department business in Haiti. 20 Germans also controlled cent of the commercial and Cap Haitien, along with the public utilities in Port-au-Prince Line The Hamburg-American the only wharf at Port-au-Prince. Haiti. About two-thirds of coffee dominated shipping to and from exports were carried away in German ships." Haiti's German merchants became active in financing After 1908 revolutions," Loans were apparently made increasingly frequent and from Berlin." Germans would both from local German resources candidates forming armies float loans at high prices to presidential after each successful in the north, and then be repaid handsomely made loans, again at high revolutionary campaign. Germans also which found rates of interest, to incumbent Haitian governments Involvement in financing themselves in desperate financial straits." motivated by the factions in Haiti was apparently various political individual German merchants, rather lucrative profits obtainable to Foreign Office. In any case, than by machinations of the Imperial and obvious German comof revolutions the growing frequency of the State Department and plicity increased the apprehensions intervention, which was opened the way for American military anathema to German interests. at the same commercial interest in Haiti quickened American up their activities. Few time that the Germans were stepping for the fascination of some Americans lived in Haiti and, except technical expertise, and comHaitians with American efficiency, American exmercial initiative, cultural contacts were negligible. while Haitian exports to ports to Haiti in 1890 totaled $5.3 million, million. Although Amerithe United States amounted to only $2.4 one-third of Haiti's total accounted for more than can products constituted only %o of 1 percent of total American imports, they and furthered by exports." American trade was actively sponsored 1865 and 1890, had negowhich, between the State Department, trading conditions for Amertiated the elimination of discriminatory , and comHaitians with American efficiency, American exmercial initiative, cultural contacts were negligible. while Haitian exports to ports to Haiti in 1890 totaled $5.3 million, million. Although Amerithe United States amounted to only $2.4 one-third of Haiti's total accounted for more than can products constituted only %o of 1 percent of total American imports, they and furthered by exports." American trade was actively sponsored 1865 and 1890, had negowhich, between the State Department, trading conditions for Amertiated the elimination of discriminatory --- Page 54 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 interest and attainment of more ican commerce. The increasing increase American favorable trading conditions did not materially was 1890 the American advantage based on proximity trade and by enterprising Germans. The State being challenged effectively by and also seeking Department, responding to the new competition merchant shipping in for the decline of American to compensate to further American interests by obthe Haitian trade, attempted for American products. taining exclusive competitive advantages to lower its duties on American The Haitian government refused retaliatory tariffs imports, and the United States, in 1892, imposed States fell drastiHaitian imports to the United on Haitian goods. to create an exclusive market for American cally, but the attempt into granting preferential conproducts by pressuring the Haitians cessions failed. undertaken by the McKinley A more successful approach was William F. Powell as minister to administration, which appointed manufacturers to adapt their Haiti. Powell encouraged American and grant more liberal credit terms. products to the Haitian market consisted of codfish and other staple American imports, which had through salesmanship to foodstuffs, were expanded and diversified The value of American include a variety of manufactured goods. of the Haitian economy, but imports depended upon fluctuations cornered about 60 percent of the by 1910 the United States had last before the disruption Haitian import market. In 1913, the year amounted commerce by World War I, American imports of Haitian million total imports, while Haitian exto $5.9 million out of $8.1 million out of $11.3 million total ports to the United States were $1 exports." 26 investments in Haiti were in conThe first significant American concession resulted in an Americessions to build railroads. An 1876 before it got beyond the city effort that floundered can construction The concession was eventually taken over limits of Port-au-Prince. used it to extort half a million dollars by German interests, who A second effort by Amerifrom the Haitian government in 1901."7 of the 40-mile Plaine du resulted in the construction cans finally Railroad in 1904. The P.C.S. Railroad was subCul-de-Sac (P.C.S.) interests. sequently taken over by German another railroad concesIn 1904 the Haitian government granted got beyond the city effort that floundered can construction The concession was eventually taken over limits of Port-au-Prince. used it to extort half a million dollars by German interests, who A second effort by Amerifrom the Haitian government in 1901."7 of the 40-mile Plaine du resulted in the construction cans finally Railroad in 1904. The P.C.S. Railroad was subCul-de-Sac (P.C.S.) interests. sequently taken over by German another railroad concesIn 1904 the Haitian government granted --- Page 55 --- HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION sion to a Haitian national who Americans for $50 cash and promptly sold his rights to two suaded the Haitian $62,500 in stock. 28 The Americans clude the government to extend their concession to per- indevelopment of a comprehensive network ports with the interior, but linking major it was taken over by American nothing came of the new project until Through bribery that was rumored entrepreneur James P. McDonald. string of fake pearls to the to have included the gift of a Simon, McDonald daughter of Haitian President Antoine obtained a renewal and concession, Although McDonald himself expansion of the earlier developing fig-banana plantations and was chiefly interested in sults, his railroad concession became never achieved any real rework and the basis of future construction expensive claims against the Haitian American investors. The concession, dated government by the Haitian government to April, 1910, called for company to meet its guarantee, upon failure of the railroad amortization expenses, 6 percent interest and on National Railway of Haiti 1 percent be issued at the rate of up to $33,000 bonds, which were to The concession also per mile of track constructed." side of the track on which granted McDonald 12 miles of land on either given an export to grow fig bananas, for which he was land and the Haitian monopoly, but McDonald failed to develop any tract dealing with fig government foreclosed that part of the conbananas, thus most promising revenue possibilities. 80 depriving the railroad of its The frivolous character of the entire when McDonald's railroad venture changed sharply a formidable New York concession was taken over in 1911 by Company with syndicate headed by W. R. Grace and Bank and participation by two Wall Street firms, Speyer and Company. National City had been involved in Haitian Speyer and National City Bank gestion of a large German railroads since 1909, when, at the sugtwo firms bought $800,000 mercantile house in Port-au-Prince, the W. R. Grace and par value of P.C.S. Railroad bonds. way bonds in France Company and sold $870,000 of the new National Railwriting obligation, advanced $2 million as part of its underBank. 82 The list of borrowing $500,000 of this from National stockholders in the City W. R. Grace and National Railway included Company, National City pany, the Ethelberga Syndicate of Bank, Speyer and ComLondon, Vice-President Samuel the sugtwo firms bought $800,000 mercantile house in Port-au-Prince, the W. R. Grace and par value of P.C.S. Railroad bonds. way bonds in France Company and sold $870,000 of the new National Railwriting obligation, advanced $2 million as part of its underBank. 82 The list of borrowing $500,000 of this from National stockholders in the City W. R. Grace and National Railway included Company, National City pany, the Ethelberga Syndicate of Bank, Speyer and ComLondon, Vice-President Samuel --- Page 56 --- 1915-1934 OCCUPATION OF HAITI, UNITED STATES presi38 Bank, and Frank A. Vanderlip, McRoberts of National Bank." City in 1911 dent of National City the new National Railway began Construction work on until the Haitian government with interruptions, in 1914. The govand continued, to the railroad railroad refused to make further payments had contracted for a complete ernment claimed that it the northern city of Cap Haitien, Port-au-Prince with three disconnected sections connecting had built only Saint Marc and while the company A gap of 40 miles between between totaling 108 miles. of 30 miles over the mountains and Gonaives and another gap made through traffic imposible stock. Haitien and Ennery three sets of rolling Cap of separate that it necessitated the maintenance National City Bank, claimed revoThe railroad, represented by fulfilling the contract by frequent mile conhad been prevented from claimed costs of the full $33,000 per level lutions. The railroad actually completed ran through although the sections those that would have gone structed, and the sections left out were done and the main country Moreover, the work was badly miles out of town in a over mountains. was located two this railroad, which station at Port-au-Prince the government for were swamp." Claims against the American occupation, paid in full during The most important immewere eventually source of grief to Haiti. was to draw powerful a continuing of the National Railway venture in Haitian internal diate effect interests into participation American banking economic penetrafinances. sphere of American has argued An even more important Haitian scholar Leslie F. Manigat in tion was in banking. United States achieved preponderance convincingly that the German interests in the 1910 struggle French and the disHaiti by defeating Nationale." 35 In 1905, following for control of the Banque the Haitian government had suspended of extensive frauds, by the French-owned covery treasury service operated Company and National the government 1909, Speyer and to secure Banque: In November, to Haiti in an attempt City Bank sent a representative but the American firms were outmaneuvered ambassador in control of the Banque, represented by the German which were trying by German interests, minister in Port-au-Prince, Paris and the German French and the disHaiti by defeating Nationale." 35 In 1905, following for control of the Banque the Haitian government had suspended of extensive frauds, by the French-owned covery treasury service operated Company and National the government 1909, Speyer and to secure Banque: In November, to Haiti in an attempt City Bank sent a representative but the American firms were outmaneuvered ambassador in control of the Banque, represented by the German which were trying by German interests, minister in Port-au-Prince, Paris and the German --- Page 57 --- HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION to reorganize the Banque and float ernment. 86 The German a new loan to the Haitian govinterests, rectors of the existing cooperating with the French dition of the Banque and Banque, procured a contract for reorganizabonds flotation of a 65 million were taken by the Franco-German franc loan. The while National City Bank later claimed interests at 72.3 percent, cent but had been turned down that it had offered 80 perThe contract for the because of failure to include graft. 87 the Banque would have reorganized sole Banque Nationale provided that the government right of note issue and would serve as 0.5 treasury, charging 1 percent on percent on money disbursed. The money received and francs of the loan as a reserve fund Banque also retained 10 million The State Department, to redeem paper currency. 88 ploitation of the Haitian objecting to "plainly unconscionable" excan participation, refused government and to the absence of AmeriState Department to sanction the contract. 39 In response to objections, the to 50 percent American Franco-German interests agreed including National participation and control in the new City Bank and Speyer and Banque, percent each. Amendments were made Company with 10 some of the provisions in the contract to remove the clause objected to by the State Department, providing for Banque collection of notably ties. In an agreement signed in Haitian customs duassured the State January, 1911, the American bankers percent control of Department the that they would retain at least 50 Haiti the benefits of American Banque and would also attempt to bring to of this agreement, enterprise and capital. On the basis Secretary of State Philander drop the department's objections to the Knox consented to his reservations about the fairness contract but did not waive years the State Department of the contract terms. In future back the American interests in would, of course, be called upon to ernment, even their conflicts with the Haitian though Article XXIII of the 1910 contract govdiplomatic intervention. prohibited The initiative for procuring American contract was exercised concurrently participation in the 1910 the American by the State bankers, and by the Department, by hesitated to close a deal without State Franco-German interests which American bankers, who had Department approval. The sought to gain control of the Banque of the contract terms. In future back the American interests in would, of course, be called upon to ernment, even their conflicts with the Haitian though Article XXIII of the 1910 contract govdiplomatic intervention. prohibited The initiative for procuring American contract was exercised concurrently participation in the 1910 the American by the State bankers, and by the Department, by hesitated to close a deal without State Franco-German interests which American bankers, who had Department approval. The sought to gain control of the Banque --- Page 58 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED interests. expressed primary concern over their railroad wrote SecreNationale, president of National City Bank, Frank A. Vanderlip, tary Knox: us to take this participation [in the 1910 Banque A fact that determined profits was the desire to have contract] more largely than any prospective on with the building of the loan matters out of the way, SO we could go in that direction being the National Railroad of Haiti, our negotiations in regard to the loan and interfered with by the pending negotiations the establishment of the bank. syndicate investments in a Haitian mining Vanderlip had personal The State Department demanded as well as in Haitian railroads." Nationale as a means of preAmerican participation in the Banque control but persisted in dilatory venting exclusive Franco-German had been ensured in hopes of tactics after American participation favor." When challenged by ameliorating the contract in Haiti's denied having the American bankers vigorously the department, of bribes to Haitian of the extensive payments had any knowledge took in early 1911 after the contract government officials that place French interests had handled all had been closed, claiming that involved compromises by negotiations. 48 In sum, the 1910 contract and the Franco-German the American bankers, the department, backed by the full commitment interests, but American interests, in control of the Banque. After of the State Department, emerged Frenchmen in the management 1911 American personnel replaced and direction of the Banque. the Haitian government Because of the high flotation discount, the 65 million franc loan. Of realized only 47 million francs from Nationale retained 10 million the 47 million francs, the Banque of paper currency to be acfrancs as cash reserve for redemption future date. The contract made complished at some undetermined receipts and also the Banque sole depository for all government of Haiti's external debt granted the Banque control over the service the Banque held French bondholders. According to the contract, to until the end of each fiscal year, paid the extergovernment receipts the funds to the govnal debt, and then turned over remaining advances to the governernment. Provisions for payment of monthly 47 million francs, the Banque of paper currency to be acfrancs as cash reserve for redemption future date. The contract made complished at some undetermined receipts and also the Banque sole depository for all government of Haiti's external debt granted the Banque control over the service the Banque held French bondholders. According to the contract, to until the end of each fiscal year, paid the extergovernment receipts the funds to the govnal debt, and then turned over remaining advances to the governernment. Provisions for payment of monthly --- Page 59 --- HAITI BEFORE THE INTERVENTION for by separate annual conventions ment by the Banque provided element of control over the government's gave the Banque an added made at the discretion of the purse strings; the monthly advances, operating expenses. Banque, were necessary to meet government German, and French inMuch of the rivalry between American, and expectations of terests was based on political considerations of specdevelopment, rather than on prospects future economic Haiti was a poor country, and was insigtacular short-term profits. Latin-American investment market. nificant in terms of the overall there had been a boom in forDuring the decade preceding 1914 which, unlike previous booms eign investments in Latin America, German, and United States in 1820 and 1860, had included French, nominal value of foreign investcapital as well as British. The total about $8.5 billion, or about ments in Latin America in 1914 was investments. The Latinone-fifth of worldwide long-term foreign down as follows: Britain American total of $8.5 billion was broken France $1.2 billion; Ger- $3.7 billion; United States $1.7 billion; investments in $.9 billion; and others $1.0 billion." Foreign French many consisted mainly of the $21.5 million owed to Haiti in 1915 of the 1875, 1896, and 1910 loans. German bondholders as a result of little consequence. United and British direct investments were amounted to about $4 million States investments in Haiti in 1913 million in Cuba. The $800 million in Mexico and $220 as against constituted only 0.32 percent of total $4 million invested in Haiti United States investments in Latin America." --- Page 60 --- Decision to The Intervene in Haiti became more frequent during Revolutions and insurrections 1910 followed well-established the late nineteenth century and by would form a caco e A candidate for the office of president declare patterns. of Haiti, capture the port of Cap Haitien, army in the north and march rival of the incumbent president, himself a legitimate Port-au-Prince, Port-au-Prince. As the caco army approached on often would along, the incumbent president plundering as it moved funds. The caco army leave the country with part of the treasury the legislature, and would then capture Port-au-Prince, surround candidate by the Haitian oversee the election of the insurgent served a complete Senate. From 1888 to 1915 no Haitian president death while in office; seven-year term and only one died a natural seven of them the other ten were either killed or overthrown, for successful chaotic after 1911. The main prize during the period which accounted revolutionaries was control of the customhouses, for all government revenues. government administraWith increasingly frequent revolutions, blatant. Payments on Haiti's tion deteriorated and graft became million in 1915, continued foreign debt, which amounted to $21.5 tremendous strain on Haito be made, but the payments placed a recruited consisted of part-time military adventurers and conscripts A "caco" organized army by local military strongmen. and loosely ten were either killed or overthrown, for successful chaotic after 1911. The main prize during the period which accounted revolutionaries was control of the customhouses, for all government revenues. government administraWith increasingly frequent revolutions, blatant. Payments on Haiti's tion deteriorated and graft became million in 1915, continued foreign debt, which amounted to $21.5 tremendous strain on Haito be made, but the payments placed a recruited consisted of part-time military adventurers and conscripts A "caco" organized army by local military strongmen. and loosely --- Page 61 --- THE DECISION TO INTERVENE finances. On the eve of the American intervention, tian government were pledged to debt service."' 80 percent of government revenues to borrow at exorbiPeriodic financial crises forced the government cash return realizing as little as 59, 56, and 47 percent tant rates, pledged to redeem at for internal bonds which the government 100 percent plus interest.? character of Haitian finances and the Despite the precarious continued to meet external debt obligafrequent revolutions, Haiti intervention and the coincidental tions up to the time of American result of World War I. loss of Haiti's coffee market in France as a compared Indeed, Haiti's record of debt payment was exemplary 1915 Ecuador was of other Latin-American countries: in to that Mexico was $15 million in arrears, and Hon- $2 million in arrears, million in arrears." Haiti's desperate duras was more than $100 did not, however, provide efforts to meet foreign debt obligations States intervention. The against United the hoped-for guarantee finances and politics was of itself cause for degeneration of Haitian impoverished Haitian concern to the State Department, since weak, Eurosusceptible to manipulation by governments were considered of European subversion, pean financial interests. This possibility of actual default, was the factor that rather than the nominal hazard in the Caribbean caused anxiety in Washington. American policy directed toward during the early twentieth century was specifically developing in Haiti. exactly the type of situation that was averting and financial deterioration in Haiti, Coinciding with the political involvement in the Caribbean area United States interest and of the Panama Canal. increased dramatically with the construction in Washington comFrom 1900 onward, successive administrations political stability mitted the United States to a policy of maintaining encroachment in the Caribbean as a means of preventing foreign political, and threaten the developing American military, that might in the area. In 1905 Secretary of State Elihu economic hegemony inevitable effect of our building the Canal must Root wrote: "The premises. In the nature be to require us to police the surrounding to keep order which of things, trade and control, and the obligation go with them, must come our way." declared the United States inThe Monroe Doctrine, which had colonization of independent tention to prohibit further European States to a policy of maintaining encroachment in the Caribbean as a means of preventing foreign political, and threaten the developing American military, that might in the area. In 1905 Secretary of State Elihu economic hegemony inevitable effect of our building the Canal must Root wrote: "The premises. In the nature be to require us to police the surrounding to keep order which of things, trade and control, and the obligation go with them, must come our way." declared the United States inThe Monroe Doctrine, which had colonization of independent tention to prohibit further European --- Page 62 --- OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED STATES the new adequate to cover Latin-American countries, was no Even longer limited, short-term intervenimportance of the area. of Latin-American countries strategic powers in the affairs tion by European be tolerated. Latin America, as would no longer such foreign intervention in of The impetus for in 1902-3, was generally a syndrome would in the case of Venezuela whereby foreign Anancial interests Latineconomic exploitation rates to an unstable and often corrupt would evenfoat loans at exorbitant That Latin-American country financial interAmerican government. loan and the foreign in tually default on its payments, for diplomatic assistance in would apply to their governments and intervention succeeded ests If diplomatic pressure investors would enjoy collecting. of the debt, the foreign there was actually forcing a settlement return on their loans where high-risk rates of thanks to their govermments intervention." inno risk involved at all, to permit foreign military United States, while refusing continued to recogThe of the Panama Canal, tervention in the vicinity financial claims on Latin-American that the nize the legitimacy of Roosevelt European Corollary of 1904 stated by ascountries. Thus the against European intervention States would ensure countries which United burden of policing Latin-American debts. President suming the their international in his delinquent in honoring new Caribbean policy were Roosevelt defined America's the Dominican Republic, Theodore Cuba, Vénezuela, and with in 1907. dealings with American customs receivership where he established an financial investments by Ameriof guaranteeing foreign for interventions. This policy action served as a precedent American subsequent concern for order can police manifested itself in countries, since The new policy the internal affairs of Caribbean and responsiand stability in of the efficiency transtable governments were capable off of debts, while unstable, unnecessary for the paying in paying debts, bility tended to be irresponsible and corrupt enough sient governments American diplomatic pressures, responsive to exorbitant loans with foreign investors. counto contract new, Stick policy of intimidating Latin-American was given new diRoosevel's Big intervention with the threat of American of State Philander tries President Taft. Taft and Secretary of European claims mensions by to remove the sources Chase Knox, attempted internal affairs of Caribbean and responsiand stability in of the efficiency transtable governments were capable off of debts, while unstable, unnecessary for the paying in paying debts, bility tended to be irresponsible and corrupt enough sient governments American diplomatic pressures, responsive to exorbitant loans with foreign investors. counto contract new, Stick policy of intimidating Latin-American was given new diRoosevel's Big intervention with the threat of American of State Philander tries President Taft. Taft and Secretary of European claims mensions by to remove the sources Chase Knox, attempted --- Page 63 --- THE DECISION TO INTERVENE financial interests to replace their Euroby encouraging American of various Caribbean countries. counterparts as the creditors pean that this policy would yield the double advantage It was hoped influence while simultaneously opening new of curtailing European and commerce. In 1909 Secretary markets for American capital with Honduras that would Knox attempted to conclude a treaty of the Honduran have called for the consolidation and refunding of an American cusAmerican bankers and the setting up debt by was concluded with Nicatoms receivership. Such an agreement government had been ragua in 1911, but only after a pro-American American marines. Within established with the help of a landing of marine continit became necessary to station a permanent a year remained until 1925 and returned again from gent in Nicaragua (it the government and 1927 to 1933) in order to sustain pro-American the customs receivership. Haitian policy was similarly oriented The Taft administration's financial participation as a means of toward introducing American refused to sancEuropean influence. The State Department limiting Haitian bank concession until 50 percent participation the 1910 had been included and certain exploitive tion by American bankers from the contract. The department's features had been removed transaction indicated the activities in connection with the 1910 a desire to limit stabilization of several policy criteria including: foreign interests in Haiti; a refusal to permit the extent of European a desire to promote influence in a Haitian customs receivership; and a concern over the American participation in Haitian finances; the department's viability of Haitian finances, as demonstrated by and thereefforts to secure a contract that would be constructive to result in a repetition of the loan default-intervenfore less likely tion syndrome. also becoming increasingly conThe Taft administration was in Haiti. In 1912 Secretary cerned about internal order and stability in his honor at Port-auKnox, speaking pointedly at a banquet given Prince, said: which my country has assumed as the At a time when the obligation and of the world in creating a highagent of the interest of all America Panama Canal] is about to be way for international commerce [the finances, as demonstrated by and thereefforts to secure a contract that would be constructive to result in a repetition of the loan default-intervenfore less likely tion syndrome. also becoming increasingly conThe Taft administration was in Haiti. In 1912 Secretary cerned about internal order and stability in his honor at Port-auKnox, speaking pointedly at a banquet given Prince, said: which my country has assumed as the At a time when the obligation and of the world in creating a highagent of the interest of all America Panama Canal] is about to be way for international commerce [the --- Page 64 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED with the conviction that the fullest success realized, we are impressed dependent on the peace and stability of our work is, to a notable degree, the prosperity and material welof our neighbors and on their enjoying A community liable to fare which flow from orderly self-government. checked in its progress by the consebe torn by internal dissension or obligations is not in a good quences of nonfulfllment of international benefits accruing from enlarged composition to deserve and reap the certain to come about with the opening mercial opportunities, such as are obstruction to the general enjoyof the canal. It may indeed become an ment of those opportunities." order and stability the United States of course In emphasizing balance favored American interassumed that the existing political changes unfavorable that disorder might result in political ests and for stability, and orderly to the United States. Concern peace, facet of in the Caribbean was a continuing the political processes twentieth century. Indeed, by American policy in the early office, this concern had time the Wilson administration entered and "stability" had bebecome axiomatic, and the terms "order" Caribbean were concliches. Disorder and instability in the come United States security in and of themselves, sidered threats to involvement. irrespective of immediate European the Caribbean policy of The Wilson administration continued the area, and was even more acseeking to dominate and stabilize military force and administrations in exercising tive than preceding achieve these ends. This was true despite diplomatic pressure to criticized the Republicans the fact that the Democrats had severely Wilson and Secretary of for imperialism and that both Woodrow idealBryan tended to be more rhetorically State William Jennings than their blatantly materialistic predeistic on foreign policy issues cessors had been. while emphasizing the need In his 1913 Mobile speech, Wilson, economic for economic disclaimed govemment-spensred expansion, of dealing with Latin-American exploitation and envisioned a policy Bryan had a long countries "upon terms of equality and honor." assistance and special governmental record of opposing imperialism election financial interests. In the presidential to privileged campaign, he had said: row idealBryan tended to be more rhetorically State William Jennings than their blatantly materialistic predeistic on foreign policy issues cessors had been. while emphasizing the need In his 1913 Mobile speech, Wilson, economic for economic disclaimed govemment-spensred expansion, of dealing with Latin-American exploitation and envisioned a policy Bryan had a long countries "upon terms of equality and honor." assistance and special governmental record of opposing imperialism election financial interests. In the presidential to privileged campaign, he had said: --- Page 65 --- THE DECISION TO INTERVENE When profitable unless it is voluntary. Trade cannot be permanently of securing it must be taken out of trade is secured by force, the cost enough to cover the expense. the profits, and the profits are never large but for the fact that the expense Such a system never would be defended the are enjoyed by a few." is borne by all the people, while profits Caribbean situation as secretary of state thirIn approaching the understood that the principal threat to teen years later, Bryan financial involvement, and he American control came from European attack the He first prosought new tactics with which to problem. debts of Caribbean that the United States refund the foreign and posed would have eliminated both European countries. This plan and would have ensured reasonable and American financial interests Latin-American countries. The manageable terms to participating military interventions, would decrease the need for American machiplan often by the exploitive since interventions were precipitated President Wilson rejected this nations of private financial interests. anplan as too radical." In 1915 Bryan suggested debt-refunding Latin-American countries from the problem other plan for freeing attendant evils: Latin-American govof financial exploitation and 4 percent, and deposit them ernments would issue bonds drawing the United States with the United States government; as security bonds at 3 percent to cover the Latinwould then market its own difference creating a sinking American bonds, with the 1 percent bonds. Bryan asserted fund which would retire the Latin-American we would hasten that "by loaning our credit to these sister republics without incurring development, and render them a great service of these Govreal risk ourselves, for we need not fear that any 99 10 any would default in the payment of such obligations." ernments would have liked to eliminate both EuroIt is clear that Bryan interests from the Caribbean loanpean and private American system, business, in favor of a nonexploitive governmental He sharking and ideologically unacceptable. but his plans were politically the interests of private Amerireverted to the policy of promoting had done, in an effort to supplant can capital, as his predecessors European interests. adroit Haitian policy by the Wilson adThe formulation of an of both Wilson ministration was impeded by the initial ignorance any would default in the payment of such obligations." ernments would have liked to eliminate both EuroIt is clear that Bryan interests from the Caribbean loanpean and private American system, business, in favor of a nonexploitive governmental He sharking and ideologically unacceptable. but his plans were politically the interests of private Amerireverted to the policy of promoting had done, in an effort to supplant can capital, as his predecessors European interests. adroit Haitian policy by the Wilson adThe formulation of an of both Wilson ministration was impeded by the initial ignorance --- Page 66 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED Caribbean affairs." The Secretary of State, and Bryan concerning the details of policy, who was to be responsible for formulating summoned John H. knew almost nothing about Haiti. In 1912 Bryan Nationale in Port-auof the Banque Allen, the American manager asked Allen to tell him everything there Prince, to Washington and Allen had described the country to was to know about Haiti. After think of itl Niggers speaking him, Bryan exclaimed, "Dear me, by the scarcity French." Bryan's own ignorance was compounded the State DepartCaribbean specialists within of knowledgeable ment. Bryan dismissed many incumUpon taking over the department, them with political apagents and replaced bent Latin-American State officer posted to pointees." 18 In a 1913 letter to a Department the Dominican Republic, Bryan inquired: yourself with the Now that you have arrived and are acquainting have at your disposal situation, can you let me know what positions you You have had enough with which to reward deserving Democrats? workers . . : are when the camexperience in politics to know how valuable find suitable rewards for all the paign is on, and how difficult it is to deserving."* unfortunate on the The personnel situation in Haiti was especially Minister Arthur Baillyeve of the intervention because American was neither trusted Blanchard, although a professional diplomat, State competent by either Bryan or Department nor considered Counselor Robert Lansing." was forced to seek competent Under these circumstances Bryan L. Farnham was one of the advice wherever he could find it. Roger familiar with available to Bryan who was thoroughly few people who was more than willing to offer his Haitian affairs. Farnham, of National City Bank of New York services, was a vice-president Nationale in Haiti, and, after 1913, president City and of Banque of Haiti. In spite of Farnham's potential of National Railway hostility to Wall Street, conflict of interests and Bryan's reputed formulation and execuleaned heavily on Farnham for both Bryan policy in Haiti." Bryan even followed tion of State Department of some of the personnel sent Farnham's lead on the appointment few people who was more than willing to offer his Haitian affairs. Farnham, of National City Bank of New York services, was a vice-president Nationale in Haiti, and, after 1913, president City and of Banque of Haiti. In spite of Farnham's potential of National Railway hostility to Wall Street, conflict of interests and Bryan's reputed formulation and execuleaned heavily on Farnham for both Bryan policy in Haiti." Bryan even followed tion of State Department of some of the personnel sent Farnham's lead on the appointment --- Page 67 --- THE DECISION TO INTERVENE Farnham's recommendation to Haiti, on one occasion first accepting as Farnham changed then weakly complying for a special agent, different man. 17 his mind and substituted a man in Haiti was neatly complemented Farnham's role as Bryan's Nationale. While the 1910 by his position as mentor of the Banque American participation and Banque reorganization provided for during the the American role became even more important were control, when all questions of routine management war in Europe, chaired by Farnham.". After the handled by a New York committee two sources of difficulty contract went into effect, 1910 Banque Nationale, represented by Farnham, developed between the Banque (1) the Banque persisted in and successive Haitian governments: and (2) the Banque, its efforts to secure a customs receivership treasury service and which held the concession for the government attempted to restrict was the sole repository of government funds, into financial income and thereby force the government debt. Default government default on the French destitution and concomitant in further borrowings from Geron the debt would, in turn, result intervention. merchants and thus lead to American man for customs control had been Despite the facts that the provision the insistence of the deleted from the 1910 Banque contract bankers on had assured the deState Department and that American not be collected by the that Haitian customs would partment successive Haitian governments tryBanque, Farnham approached He threatto induce them to agree to a customs receivership." loans ing with American intervention and also offered ened the Haitians on condition that the desperate Haitian governments to financially be granted customs control. He also United States government railroad concessions." Because offered loans as bait for further were considerably Farnham's 1911 efforts to procure a receivership he was forced to play in advance of those of the State Department, was informing the department that no receivership a double game, refusing to close a loan until the in prospect while simultaneously customs control, In pressHaitian government agreed to American and trying to force ing the Haitian government for a and receivership the New York bankers were the department's hand, Farnham Haiti W. Furniss who reopposed by American Minister to Henry and was, in turn, depeatedly pointed out Farnham's duplicity 1911 efforts to procure a receivership he was forced to play in advance of those of the State Department, was informing the department that no receivership a double game, refusing to close a loan until the in prospect while simultaneously customs control, In pressHaitian government agreed to American and trying to force ing the Haitian government for a and receivership the New York bankers were the department's hand, Farnham Haiti W. Furniss who reopposed by American Minister to Henry and was, in turn, depeatedly pointed out Farnham's duplicity --- Page 68 --- 1915-1934 STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, UNITED City Bank as being hostile by National to nounced to the department case, Farnham's many attempts American interests." In any Haitian govto were foiled by unresponsive even though negotiate a receivership refused to give up national sovereignty as bait to ernments, which financial support, offered survival which Farnham, by pledging regimes. Relinquishment of customs, have meant a series of ephemeral of revenues, would funds from were the sole source control government of all Haitian government Nationale already complete American since the Banque servcollection through expenditure, in the treasury all funds once they were deposited Furniss was controlled advent of the Wilson administration, seems to have ice. With the and Famham, whom Bryan adviser as minister State Department replaced a became the leading thenceforth directed trusted completely," affairs. United States policy was and the State on Haitian of a customs receivership, the Banque Natoward the achievement to work in concert with Department proceeded attempted to procure tionale. Farnham and the State Department and early 1915, the While receivership in 1914 decustoms a second stratagem a negotiated employed Banque Nationale simultaneously into a receivenhip-withsigned to force the Haitian government reform fund. loan a 10 million franc monetary 65 million franc holding contract and contingent be set aside and held The 1910 Banque that 10 million francs to bolster the included a provision for future monetary reform intended Before any plan by the Banque which had been severely inflated. recovery, and Haitian gourde, the gourde made a vigorous was into effect, obviated." could be put total redemption of paper gourdes redemption plans the contemplated refused to agree to several partial insisting that the new The Banque alternatives by the government, called for the comoffered as violate the 1910 contract, which and gave exclusive right plans elimination would of government currency the Banque and President plete issue to the Banque. In 1914 in which one-fourth of note executed a redemption scheme but the plan failed, Michel Oreste fund was used; of the 10 million franc monetary correspondence or with in either in the Bryan-Wilson about working *I have found no indication, that Bryan had any misgivings the State Department papers, Farnham. que alternatives by the government, called for the comoffered as violate the 1910 contract, which and gave exclusive right plans elimination would of government currency the Banque and President plete issue to the Banque. In 1914 in which one-fourth of note executed a redemption scheme but the plan failed, Michel Oreste fund was used; of the 10 million franc monetary correspondence or with in either in the Bryan-Wilson about working *I have found no indication, that Bryan had any misgivings the State Department papers, Farnham. --- Page 69 --- THE DECISION TO INTERVENE The when Oreste was overthrown. and payments were suspended fund remained in the hands of remainder of the 10 million franc drawing and was used for routine banking purposes, the Banque while the Haitian government received, up to 12 percent interest, interest."" A search made dispute, only 1.5 percent after a protracted in December, 1914, revealed that by a Haitian examining magistrate fund was actually in the Banque's only $162,050 of the redemption there should have been $1 million. 25 vaults in Port-au-Prince, where and redundancy of plans for The Banque, despite the abandonment access to the reform, refused to allow the government monetary claiming that it was a trust fund. money, toward the financial In 1914 the Banque took a decisive step defaulting on the constrangulation of the Haitian government by had agreed to advance vention budgétaire, by which the Banque instead of holding all governgovernment funds on a monthly basis fiscal as called for by the until the end of each year, ment receipts claimed that it was forced to 1910 Banque contract. The Banque of the European money take this step because of the condition Haitian the outset of World War I.* The government, market at expenses, was forced to float inleft without money for operating and to seek financial remedies as ternal loans at disastrous rates Madison R. Smith summed up the best it could. American Minister situation in a report to Bryan: in the loan contract providing for advancements by There is nothing budgétaire has been in the nature of an the bank, and the convention the bank. As before stated, the suspension accommodation extended by would bring the Government of the convention budgétaire most likely It is just this condition that to a condition where it could not belief operate. of the bank that the Government the bank desires, for it is the would be forced to ask the assistance when confronted by such a crisis, financial tangle and that an American of the United States in adjusting its supervision of the customs would result."" claiming force majeure as justification for stopping The Banque, refused to consider pleas of force majeure the convention budgétaire, with respect to releasing the redunfrom the Haitian government In spite of the difficulties in the dant monetary reform fund." allegedly prevented the Banque European money market which belief operate. of the bank that the Government the bank desires, for it is the would be forced to ask the assistance when confronted by such a crisis, financial tangle and that an American of the United States in adjusting its supervision of the customs would result."" claiming force majeure as justification for stopping The Banque, refused to consider pleas of force majeure the convention budgétaire, with respect to releasing the redunfrom the Haitian government In spite of the difficulties in the dant monetary reform fund." allegedly prevented the Banque European money market which --- Page 70 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 from fulfilling the convention offer a single recourse to the budgétaire, the Banque continued to advance of funds Haitian government-an immediate customs receivership," contingent upon government acceptance of a The Banque engaged in various other non-Banque foreign loans and schemes, such as blocking to drive the Haitian supporting revolutions, in its efforts United States government into a receivership and intervention." 80 bring about State Department the Conversely, in its relations with the toward Banque depicted itself as being corrupt and irresponsible Haitian solicitous Farnham informed the State governments. In 1915 American interests in the bank Department that, from 1911 on, "The their French have, during this period, rather led colleagues in extending assistance. 99 31 Farnham's main stratagem in serving as affairs was to play up Franco-German Bryan's adviser on Haitian pointing to increasing disorder activities while simultaneously ported that French and in Haitian politics. 82 Farnham reover the Banque Nationale German interests were conniving to take and the National interests were unable to hold out Railway, that American without State against the French and Germans Department assistance, that Haitian finance and Germans were dominating commerce, and that Haitian becoming increasingly violent and destructive revolutions were erty." Farnham's alarming to American proptrigues, partly corroborated reports about French and German intion in Port-au-Prince, by dispatches from the American created grave legaA 1914 Division of Latin-American anxiety within the department. stated that Germans Affairs memorandum to were seeking "almost Bryan financial and commercial affairs of the complete control of the going to set up a coaling station at island," that Germans were guise of a general commercial Mole-Saint-Nicolas under the 3,000-ton store of coal in store, that the French had set up a Germans a steel hulk at were trying to buy the Port-au-Prince, and that National o a SD Railway. The assessment and activity 838.00/1667, in the Caribbean Stabler to Bryan, May 13, 1914. The extent of German troversy. A recent study during this period remains a subject of influence bidding for canal indicates that contemporary reports of historical conrights in Nicaragua in 1914 German interest in "A Nicaragua Note in order to increase interest in the United were spurious and were contrived by on the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty and States. Robert Freeman Smith, 1914," Carlbbean Studies, IX, No. 1 (April, 1969), German Interest in a Nicaraguan Canal, 63-66. May 13, 1914. The extent of German troversy. A recent study during this period remains a subject of influence bidding for canal indicates that contemporary reports of historical conrights in Nicaragua in 1914 German interest in "A Nicaragua Note in order to increase interest in the United were spurious and were contrived by on the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty and States. Robert Freeman Smith, 1914," Carlbbean Studies, IX, No. 1 (April, 1969), German Interest in a Nicaraguan Canal, 63-66. --- Page 71 --- THE DECISION TO INTERVENE as being ascendant was largely of German commercial penetration 34 The specalthough German investments were negligible. justified, assiduously overdrawn by Farnham, ter of German penetration, to demur on the part of by an obverse tendency inwas compounded American investors who expressed American business interests. United Fruit Company, refused to go terest in Haiti, such as the took over the country and in unless the United States government Farnham added a final element of stopped revolutions." In 1915 of all American interests threatening Bryan with an exodus stress by failed to intervene. 86 if the administration Farnham's reports of FrancoBryan was greatly alarmed by taken in by even the more German activities and was apparently to Wilson that Farnimplausible stories. In 1915 Bryan reported could not be put into writing, ham had told him some things that but that that the German and French Ministers acted simultaneously- beIt seems there seems to be some sympathetic cooperation if not together-and German interests in Haiti. There are some inditween the French and advantage of Môle St. Nicolas. 87 cations that their plans include taking were then at war, it seems absurd to Since France and Germany a naval base in that they would cooperate in establishing reason and Wilson were determined that French Haiti. In any case, Bryan should not be permitted to take and especially German interests over Haiti. threat to withdraw American business In response to Farnham's States must act to protect interests, Bryan agreed that the United and requested that the French and Germans, the Americans against the French shares in the Banque the American interests acquire United States control of Haitian Nationale. 38 Farnham insisted on efforts and Bryan acceded, even though the department's a customs, diplomatic means had failed. In to secure a receivership through stated: note to Wilson in April, 1915, Bryan to remain there, with a view of The American interests are willing the Bank a branch of the purchasing a controlling interest and making this this Government American bank-they are willing to do provided Americans against the French shares in the Banque the American interests acquire United States control of Haitian Nationale. 38 Farnham insisted on efforts and Bryan acceded, even though the department's a customs, diplomatic means had failed. In to secure a receivership through stated: note to Wilson in April, 1915, Bryan to remain there, with a view of The American interests are willing the Bank a branch of the purchasing a controlling interest and making this this Government American bank-they are willing to do provided --- Page 72 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 them and their idea seems to be that takes the steps necessary to protect that does not include a control of the no protection will be sufficient Customs House." to achieve control in Haiti, but Bryan was reluctant to use force and probably unavoidfelt, at this point, that force was necessary : of the Haitian able. Wilson, commenting on the "sinister appearance" should be sustained and situation, agreed that American interests assisted. 40 German advances in Haiti, Wilson and In resisting French and American policy of limiting Bryan were continuing the established order, and stability in European interests and insisting on peace, American economic the Caribbean, while simultaneously furthering of the United States in the interests. The broad strategic interests implications, were the Caribbean, which of course had economic interests in Haiti. factors, rather than specific economic primary of the Wilson administration's Haitian policy The major emphasis of foreign interests, rather than on interdiction was on negative of American economic imperialism. positive promotion interests in Haiti, despite the energetic efforts American economic of limited scope. United States investof Farnham and others, were $4 million as against $220 ments in Haiti in 1913 amounted to only Cuba and $800 million in million across the Windward Passage in States imperialism Mexico. Relative to the overall thrust of United crucial but economically in the Caribbean, Haiti was strategically thought Haiti had great poof little consequence. Some Americans because of abundant and tential for future economic development to be fertile land; but no cheap labor coupled with what appeared and few businessmen had ever been made, serious investigation Those few American entreprewere even aware of the country." projects in Haiti, who had attempted to start agricultural neurs of the 1910 fig banana concession, failed such as J. P. McDonald American economic interests in Haiti miserably. The only significant railroads and the Banque. These were the capital investments in investments depended on lucrative and previous American capital economic developconcessions rather than on general government ment. tential for future economic development to be fertile land; but no cheap labor coupled with what appeared and few businessmen had ever been made, serious investigation Those few American entreprewere even aware of the country." projects in Haiti, who had attempted to start agricultural neurs of the 1910 fig banana concession, failed such as J. P. McDonald American economic interests in Haiti miserably. The only significant railroads and the Banque. These were the capital investments in investments depended on lucrative and previous American capital economic developconcessions rather than on general government ment. --- Page 73 --- THE DECISION TO INTERVENE American economic expansion in Haiti, Bryan, while favoring American economic interests when subordinated the promotion of In 1915, when conflicted with strategic and political goals. these offered concessions for economic exploitathe Haitian government attempt to negotiate a to an American tion as a counterproposal rejected the concessions, replying: customs receivership, Bryan to in every proper way American investWhile we desire encourage that this can be better done by contributing ments in Haiti, we believe special concessions to Americans. to stability and order than by favoring itself of business opportunities in American capital will gladly avail necessary for profitable proHaiti when assured of the peace and quiet assistance to American investors duction . . we shall give all legitimate just as binding to protect Haiti, in Haiti, but we are under obligation and exploitation at the hands as far as our influence goes, from injustice of Americans. 42 which was thought to be of crucial imporLong-term stability, over short-term tance for strategic reasons, was given precedence to the massive Stability was also prerequisite economic exploitation. would be to develop Haiti into American investments that required the case in Cuba. Past experia lucrative economic satellite, as was to sustained had shown that exploitive concessions, as opposed ence sources of trouble and agricultural development, were continuing demoralization and instability. contributed to political business interests in Haiti, repreIt is true that the American influential in the formulation sented by Farnham, were particularly that the business interests received of State Department policy and in their conflicts with full diplomatic support from the department not mean that Bryan and the Haitian government, but this does their behalf. Rather, Bryan predominantly in Wilson were acting interests as instruments of and Wilson sought to use the American focused on the restriction policy, which remained State Department and the establishment of orderly and of Franco-German influence the United States and capable of stable government amenable to European encroachmaintaining political independence against in Haiti was an Concurrent American economic penetration ments. the consideration in the formuextra beneft, rather than pivotal full diplomatic support from the department not mean that Bryan and the Haitian government, but this does their behalf. Rather, Bryan predominantly in Wilson were acting interests as instruments of and Wilson sought to use the American focused on the restriction policy, which remained State Department and the establishment of orderly and of Franco-German influence the United States and capable of stable government amenable to European encroachmaintaining political independence against in Haiti was an Concurrent American economic penetration ments. the consideration in the formuextra beneft, rather than pivotal --- Page 74 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED however, was more than just an instrulation of policy. Farnham, His exploitation of his special ment of State Department policy. with the machinations of position as Bryan's man in Haiti, along and perhaps cruNationale, constituted the important the Banque economic interests played in the Wilson cial factor that American intervene in Haiti. administration's decision to in the decision to intervene in Haiti The main considerations military. With the construcwere strategic and, more specifically, investment of American tion of the Panama Canal and large-scale United States military security capital in Cuba, the maintenance of Wilson and Bryan both felt demanded control of the Caribbean. countries would be as that foreign financial control of Caribbean control by foreign governments dangerous as outright and Bryan were led to believe that foreign In Haiti, where Wilson the situation was furcapitalists were controlling the government, as a potenby the existence of Mole-Saint-Nicolas ther complicated base." At the outset the Wilson adtial coaling station and naval American base, as had several ministration wanted the Môle as an and Wilson apadministrations. In 1913 Bryan suggested the Môle previous which the United States would procure proved a plan by and 10 miles wide extending into and a strip of land 20 miles long the option of either with Haitian residents being given the interior, the United States or becoming American citiselling their land to this time, however, the Navy zens if they wished to remain." By base across the WindDepartment, which already had an excellent to the Bay, Cuba, had come regard ward Passage at Guantânamo for its own purposes, but insisted Môle as obsolete and superfluous it." In 1914 and 1915 that no other nation be permitted to acquire the Germans had serious convinced that the State Department, interested in establishing designs on the Môle but itself no longer for outright acquisition base there, dropped the plan an American from the Haitian government that and sought instead guarantees power. The Wilson the Môle would not be ceded to any foreign that, because of administration ultimately came to the conclusion Haitian instability and domination by foreign capitalists, political insufficient and that United States intervention guarantees were eliminate the threat of European encroachment." was required to other nation be permitted to acquire the Germans had serious convinced that the State Department, interested in establishing designs on the Môle but itself no longer for outright acquisition base there, dropped the plan an American from the Haitian government that and sought instead guarantees power. The Wilson the Môle would not be ceded to any foreign that, because of administration ultimately came to the conclusion Haitian instability and domination by foreign capitalists, political insufficient and that United States intervention guarantees were eliminate the threat of European encroachment." was required to --- Page 75 --- THE DECISION TO INTERVENE in its of Haiti to the United States lay The strategic importance Passage and in the relative weakness location along the Windward World War I. In 1903 the Ameriof the United States Navy before the world's navies, and by can navy ranked sixth in size among as a result of pro1914 had suffered a severe decline in efficiency States had concentration in Mexican waters. The United the Panlonged in the Caribbean by building developed a strong position naval base at Guantânamo Bay but, ama Canal and establishing a was vulnergiven the weakness of the fleet, the American Caribbean position naval stations, which possessed a number of able. Britain, the United States and concentrated her had abandoned the area to were while France and Germany preoccupied fleet against Germany, waters." 48 Nevertheless, any of the three with activities in their home the United States in the powers could conceivably have challenged have dominated the area. Caribbean and, in terms of naval strength, feared the Germans, who The Wilson administration especially had they been have been formidable opponents would theoretically base and then station their fleet there. able to procure a Caribbean in the Dominican Republic, and Mole-Saint-Nicolas, Samanâ Bay vulnerable to German the Danish West Indies were considered lacked firm control over local seizure because the United States had made a series of atpolitics in each case. The United States dating from Secretary tempts to secure the three strategic harbors, Samana in the 1860s. of State William H. Seward's designs on Bay miliadministration took over all three by establishing The Wilson in the Dominican Republic in tary occupations in Haiti in 1915, worthless Danish West 1916, and by purchasing the economically the Danish West Indies was Indies in 1916. The offer to purchase to German accompanied by threat of American seizure turned prevent down the control in the event that the Danish government offer. 49 Josephus Daniels, and Robert Wilson's Secretary of the Navy, fearful of German Lansing of the State Department were especially and after in the Caribbean. Lansing, first as counselor activities successor as secretary of state, was suspicious June, 1915, Bryan's in Haiti and did not trust of National City Bank's machinations the Haitians and had been Farnham, who he felt was not liked by falling out of favor with arrogant toward them." Despite Farnham's control in the event that the Danish government offer. 49 Josephus Daniels, and Robert Wilson's Secretary of the Navy, fearful of German Lansing of the State Department were especially and after in the Caribbean. Lansing, first as counselor activities successor as secretary of state, was suspicious June, 1915, Bryan's in Haiti and did not trust of National City Bank's machinations the Haitians and had been Farnham, who he felt was not liked by falling out of favor with arrogant toward them." Despite Farnham's --- Page 76 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 toward intervention was the departure of Bryan, the momentum diminished since Lansing was an ardent Germanophobe in no way German operations in Mexico, Haiti, in his own right. Discussing elsewhere in Latin America several the Dominican Republic, and of state, Lansing stated, "Everyweeks after taking over as secretary to accomplish the where German agents are plotting and intriguing - and argued for "the prevensupreme purpose of their government," German influence becoming tion by all means in our power of or near the Panama dominant in any nation bordering the Caribbean Canal." 51 the interIn a 1922 letter to a Senate committee investigating for intervention stated that the reason vention in Haiti, Lansing Haiti's falling into German hands."" was the imminent threat of revolutions, dominating He said that the Germans were financing exclusive control of local politics, and were about to take over He also referred to a Haitian customs and the Mole-Saint-Nicolas. from the German "mysterious action" in 1914, when a landing party the German minister cruiser Karlsruhe was reported turned back by o just as the war broke out in Europe. on the pier at Port-au-Prince this 1922 letter were, however, gross exagLansing's assertions in with the connivance of the State gerations; the letter was written the occupation of Haiti Department which in 1922 was defending that Lansing political attacks and which arranged against partisan the original intershould stress the German threat as having justified said that fear of vention." 68 In his 1935 War Memoirs, Lansing the approaches to the Germany's establishing submarine bases along in Haiti and the Panama Canal had prompted the intervention purchase of the Danish West Indies." advocated an extenIn a 1915 memorandum to Wilson, Lansing "Caribbean Policy" sion of the Monroe Doctrine to constitute a new would counter the in which forcible United States intervention Caribbean countries. 55 Landanger of European financial control of that European fnancial sing believed, as did Wilson and Bryan, States security as control constituted as great a menace to United that American cession or occupation. Lansing argued did outright informed the State the German government e Shortly after Lansing's statement, Karlsruhe incident had not taken place. SD 838.51/1294, Department that the alleged Embassy, Washington, June 10, 1922. Aide-Memoire from German sion of the Monroe Doctrine to constitute a new would counter the in which forcible United States intervention Caribbean countries. 55 Landanger of European financial control of that European fnancial sing believed, as did Wilson and Bryan, States security as control constituted as great a menace to United that American cession or occupation. Lansing argued did outright informed the State the German government e Shortly after Lansing's statement, Karlsruhe incident had not taken place. SD 838.51/1294, Department that the alleged Embassy, Washington, June 10, 1922. Aide-Memoire from German --- Page 77 --- THE DECISION TO INTERVENE and honest demanded the establishment of stable national safety taking control of public revenues governments in the Caribbean by revolutionaries and foreigners and thus removing the prize sought by that the primary who financed them. Lansing stated emphatically rather than of his "Caribbean Policy" was nationalistic, purpose Pan-American, saying: control over American territory is not The opposition to European of American state. . . The essenprimarily to preserve the integrity any which would menace the national tial idea is to prevent a condition make no argument on the ground interests of the United States. . . . I of these republics by the of the benefit which would result to the peoples adoption of this policy." benefits for the Caribbean countries, such as prosperAttendant >> were of secondary importance. ity and "intellectual development," memorandum, saying, "The Wilson responded favorably to Lansing's and I thank you argument in this paper seems to be unanswerable, for setting it out SO explicitly and fully."" Daniels was concerned with preSecretary of the Navy Josephus submarine base in Haiti. the Germans from establishing a venting States entered the war in Europe, Daniels Even before the United for submarine bases from had sent men to inspect all potential sites base in Haiti and the possibility of a German Maine to Panama, letter to William Allen caused him special anxiety. Writing a private White in 1930, Daniels recalled: the soldiers to France in safety, my greatest anxiety Outside of getting submarines might come over to the Caribbean always was that German the to You will recall to the Gulf and sink tankers on way Europe. not or tankers on the other side and if we had that they sunk very many south of Florida they would undoubtbeen very vigilant with our ships over on this side and sunk tankers. edly have secured a base and come coast later and ravage merchant You know, they did come over to our sunk a merchant ship I was shipping. From the very day the first U boat into the Caribbean or nervous and distressed for fear they would get to do off the the Gulf of Mexico and do what they later attempted Delaware coast." on way Europe. not or tankers on the other side and if we had that they sunk very many south of Florida they would undoubtbeen very vigilant with our ships over on this side and sunk tankers. edly have secured a base and come coast later and ravage merchant You know, they did come over to our sunk a merchant ship I was shipping. From the very day the first U boat into the Caribbean or nervous and distressed for fear they would get to do off the the Gulf of Mexico and do what they later attempted Delaware coast." --- Page 78 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED 1915, American intervention in Haiti in July, At the time of the submarine and the outcome of the the military potential of the factors. In retrospect it seems European war were both unknown alarmed over the German that Lansing and Daniels were unduly somehow procured a threat in the Caribbean, but had Germany United States position in base in Haiti and then won the war, the compromised. the Caribbean would have been seriously of the long-term While the decision to intervene in Haiti was part the of United States hegemony in the Caribbean, and ultidevelopment German incursion was a more immediate factor threat of tactics for executing the mately the decisive one. State Department with diplomatic intervention evolved over two years, beginning with the landing and ending efforts to obtain a customs receivership of marines in July, 1915." supported American busiThe Wilson administration consistently interceding on behalf of in Haiti from the outset, ness interests in March, 1913, by urging the Haitian Farnham's National Railway constructed track. The to accept three sections of badly government contract clauses prohibiting diplomatic State Department, despite both the railway and the Banque Nationale intervention, supported with the Haitian government. The dein all subsequent disputes committed itself to support the Banque partment had apparently transaction, when department during the 1910 Banque contract Farnham stated arranged for American participation. representatives memorandum to Bryan and Wilson: in a 1915 were made by the then officials of the While no specific statements was generally underto such effect, it never-the-less State Department involved that, should the occasion arise, stood by the American interests from their Government such prompt the American interests would receive deem necessary in the circumand full support as the Department might stances. 60 instance of support was the Machias incident The most blatant after last-minute consultation with of December, 1914, when Bryan, Machias to Port-au-Prince and Farnham, dispatched the U.S.S. removed $500,000 of Haitian landed a detachment of marines which Nationale. The funds from the vaults of the Banque government olved that, should the occasion arise, stood by the American interests from their Government such prompt the American interests would receive deem necessary in the circumand full support as the Department might stances. 60 instance of support was the Machias incident The most blatant after last-minute consultation with of December, 1914, when Bryan, Machias to Port-au-Prince and Farnham, dispatched the U.S.S. removed $500,000 of Haitian landed a detachment of marines which Nationale. The funds from the vaults of the Banque government --- Page 79 --- THE DECISION TO INTERVENE to New York, where it was deposited money was then transported 61 In January, 1915, the with National City Bank for safekeeping." in of the Nationale raised the United States flag place Banque it would henceforth be under the protection French flag, signifying of the United States." in his effort to achieve Farnham enlisted the State Department 1914. In January he American customs receivership in early an control was necessary and that two wrote Bryan that customs whom he was supporting were candidates Haitian presidential control but required American intervention amenable to American and Wilson, hoping that to achieve power. 63 In March, 1914, Bryan customs rewould request an American the Haitian government and France, both of whom had ceivership, decided that Germany receivership, should expressed interest in joining in any American a scheme be allowed to participate." 64 In July Bryan accepted not Plan," which envisioned a United States known as the "Farnham assisted by the American and which Farnham, customs receivership to negotiate with Haitian policonsul at Cap Haitien, attempted a proposed draft ticians. 65 At this time Bryan sent to Port-au-Prince modeled after the 1907 convention that was of a Haitian-American for an American but included provisions Dominican receivership financial adviser as well as for a customs receivership." a receivThe Farnham Plan and subsequent attempts to negotiate matter how desfailed because no Haitian government, no ership could afford to surrender perate its financial or political situation, minister of foreign affairs who national sovereignty. One Haitian by the deal with the United States was denounced suggested a and attempted to assault him Haitian Senate, which rose in a body and outright cession physically." 67 Instead of a customs receivership offered ecosuccessive Haitian governments of Mole-Saint-Nicolas, not to alienate the Môle to any nomic concessions and guarantees to the State Departforeign power." 68 These were insufficient demanding: placate (1) a customs ment, which, by November, 1914, was made the Haitian govconvention; (2) settlement of claims settlement against of claims made ernment by the American railroad; (8) of foreign interests; by the Banque Nationale; (4) full protection the guarantee not to alienate the Môle." and (5) uccessive Haitian governments of Mole-Saint-Nicolas, not to alienate the Môle to any nomic concessions and guarantees to the State Departforeign power." 68 These were insufficient demanding: placate (1) a customs ment, which, by November, 1914, was made the Haitian govconvention; (2) settlement of claims settlement against of claims made ernment by the American railroad; (8) of foreign interests; by the Banque Nationale; (4) full protection the guarantee not to alienate the Môle." and (5) --- Page 80 --- UNITED STATES OCCUFATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 commissions to dispatched two special The State Department continued efforts to negotiate a receivership, Haiti in early 1915 in efforts would not that diplomatic but it was becoming apparent in June, 1915, that no succeed. Commissioner Paul Fuller reported because he politician could afford to sign an agreement Haitian the country to the United States and would be accused of selling the only way to carry out American that armed intervention was result with Germany and policy. 70 Possible complications that might action were smoothed over France because of unilateral American wished to alienate successfully, probably because neither country war. The German the United States at that stage of the European underassured the department that Germany chargé in Washington States could not agree to German customs stood that the United and that the Imperial participation for internal political reasons only because Foreign Office persisted in its claim to participation the in Germany. 71 At the time of the intervention of public opinion and hoped that the United States would French expressed approval of Haiti." In April, 1915, Bryan be "energetic" in its revamping left to be determined about wrote Wilson that the only questions and the method. At this point American intervention were the time control Haiti through a Bryan suggested that the United States the Netherlands in "resident Adviser" similar to the system used by Java and the British in India." little consideration In the development of the intervention policy instance when to the rights of the Haitians. The only was given was given token recognition was Haiti's right of self-determination that the Wilson Plan, by which the a 1914 suggestion by Lansing elections in the Dominican Republic, United States had supervised which proved to be impracbe applied to Haiti." Even this plan, control by the United States. ticable, was to have included customs and officials, confident of American superiority State Department of the period, tended to disparage reflecting the racial prejudices most foreign observers Haitian achievements and capabilities, as had throughout Haitian history. Lansing remarked: of Liberia and Haiti show that the African race are for The experience and lack genius devoid of any capacity for political there is organization in them an inherent tendency to government. Unquestionably --- Page 81 --- THE DECISION TO INTERVENE and to cast aside the shackles of civilization which are revert to savagery nature. Of course there are many exceptions to irksome to their physical but it is true of the mass, as we know from expethis racial weakness It is that which makes the negro problem practirience in this country. cally unsolvable.* were aware of the lack of respect AmeriHaitians, for their part, The French minister at Port-aucans had for Haitian sovereignty. in April, 1915, that "for Prince reported to the French government and among the Whites the Haitian the Americans are the Whites, for Blacks." 99 76 those who have the most insulting contempt Phillips, writing a memoranAssistant Secretary of State William in Haiti at the time of Amerdum summing up recent developments Haitian lack of public opinion, lack ican intervention, pointed to incompetence," 2: and "complete political to of public responsibility, stated: "These facts all point growing demoralization. Phillips the degree of civithe failure of an inferior people to maintain any capacity of lization left them by the French, or to develop respect and conentitling them to international self government complete forcible intervention fidence. 77 Phillips recommended presided over by a and the establishment of military government United States Army general. summing up recent developments Haitian lack of public opinion, lack ican intervention, pointed to incompetence," 2: and "complete political to of public responsibility, stated: "These facts all point growing demoralization. Phillips the degree of civithe failure of an inferior people to maintain any capacity of lization left them by the French, or to develop respect and conentitling them to international self government complete forcible intervention fidence. 77 Phillips recommended presided over by a and the establishment of military government United States Army general. --- Page 82 --- H The Intervention for United States intervention was the The immediate occasion Vilbrun Guillaume Sam in July, overthrow of Haitian President that intervention 1915. Declarations issued by the State Department and for humanitarian reasons to prevent anarchy was undertaken American warships had bloodshed were spurious and misleading. waters throughout the been maintaining a close vigil in Haitian customs receiverunsuccessful attempts to negotiate an American operations as early ship, and had been alerted for possible landing as July, 1914.' of Haiti were drawn up well in Plans for military occupation not by a single, showing that intervention was precipitated advance, "Plan for Landing revolution. A detailed Navy Department anarchic 92 drawn up in November, and Occupying the City of Port-au-Prince, 1914, begins: all semblance of law has been overthrown; Situation-The government local authorities admit their inability to protect and order has ceased; the overrun and in the hands of about 5,000 foreign interests, the city being soldiers and civilian mobs.? of the actual landings This description could pass for a news report contingency plan, conwhich took place nine months later. Another sample letters for notifystructed in the summer of 1914, contained intentions: one such, under a ing Haitian authorities of American left blank, stated that "the 1914 dateline with the day and month --- Page 83 --- THE INTERVENTION of the United States is solely for the estabof the President naval purpose of law and order.' >9 This same plan stipulated that lishment should not be used against organlanding forces at Port-au-Prince would instead be subjected to ized armed troops ashore, which out in the harbor." The gunfire from American warships standing judged to be capacity for resistance was correctly Haitian army's report describing Haitian negligible, with one 1914 intelligence rifles." When it became clear soldiers as a mob armed with worthless customs receiverthat the Haitians would not agree to a negotiated achieve American ship and that military force was necessary invasion to plans was an ends, the only missing detail in the military United States inHaitian revolution that would justify lives appropriate of protecting American tervention on the customary pretext record of any American life and property. In fact, there was no to the intervention." having been lost or property destroyed prior the United of President Guillaume Sam provided The overthrow Not only were Haitian politics States with the requisite opportunity. in the preincreasingly chaotic, with seven presidents becoming but the overthrow of Sam was exceptionally ceding five years, both within Haiti and in bloody and repugnant to public opinion less than five months, was implithe United States. Sam, in office who were murdered cated in the massacre of 167 political prisoners taken was being by by Sam's army commander as Port-au-Prince of prisoners, many of whom revolutionary forces. After the massacre Sam took refuge in the were members of prominent elite families, General Oscar Etienne in the French legation, and chief executioner violated the legations and Dominican legation. Enraged mobs from the French killed both Sam and Etienne. Sam was dragged of his body were then legation and publicly dismembered. Portions the streets of Port-au-Prince in a grotesque specparaded around vindictive cries from the mob." tacle accompanied by violation of foreign Even before learning of the unprecedented marines under the comlegations, the State Department ordered to land at Port-aumand of Rear Admiral William B. Caperton French, German, and Prince. Unlike previous revolutions, landed when for short periods to protect sometimes British marines were United States intended to go in alone. their nationals, this time the the of British was instructed to request captains Admiral Caperton the streets of Port-au-Prince in a grotesque specparaded around vindictive cries from the mob." tacle accompanied by violation of foreign Even before learning of the unprecedented marines under the comlegations, the State Department ordered to land at Port-aumand of Rear Admiral William B. Caperton French, German, and Prince. Unlike previous revolutions, landed when for short periods to protect sometimes British marines were United States intended to go in alone. their nationals, this time the the of British was instructed to request captains Admiral Caperton --- Page 84 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED in the area to abstain from landing forces, and French warships the United States would protect all foreign and to assure them that had, in fact, requested a French interests." The French minister but a after the violation of the French legation, landing party the French cruiser Descartes and helped navigational error delayed complications." The Descartes reavert possible Franco-American several months, until the French remained in Haitian waters for over the violation of ceived a satisfactory response to their protest the legation. overthrow of Sam was cited as justification for The macabre for American policy. The intervention by subsequent apologists trustee of civilization in the United States, as the self-appointed minimal standards of decency Caribbean, was obligated to maintain was readily demonand morality. The weakness of this argument Haitian of the intervention. A prominent strated by opponents incident in a Southern United States town writer, referring to an from the local jail and burned alive where a black man was dragged also existed in the in the town square, pointed out that barbarity debate, sevUnited States." 8 In a 1929 United States congressional assasnoted that the number of Haitian presidents eral congressmen almost the same as the number of Amerisinated over the years was and that since 1862, the year of the can presidents assassinated the number was identical-three American recognition of Haiti, the frequent overthrow presidents killed in each country." Likewise, had eleven governments of governments was not unique; France from 1909 to 1914. of American intervention, the Whatever the moral implications in the deliberations missionary impulse did not figure prominently administration. Policy of United States policy makers in the Wilson with the sendiscussions centered around strategic considerations, intervention more sational demise of Sam serving only to make and to those adpalatable to moralists outside the government, of the Navy Daniels, who ministration officials, notably Secretary marines at Cap Haitien several weeks earlier, o The Descartes had landed French the arrival of Admiral Caperton, who undertook but these were withdrawn upon interests during a revolutionary outbreak there. the task of protecting Révolution all foreign d'Haiti, Juillet, 1915," La Revue Hebdomadaire at Pierre Girard, "La 1925), 428-32. Girard was the French minister (Paris), Année 34, VII (July, Port-au-Prince in July, 1915. Navy Daniels, who ministration officials, notably Secretary marines at Cap Haitien several weeks earlier, o The Descartes had landed French the arrival of Admiral Caperton, who undertook but these were withdrawn upon interests during a revolutionary outbreak there. the task of protecting Révolution all foreign d'Haiti, Juillet, 1915," La Revue Hebdomadaire at Pierre Girard, "La 1925), 428-32. Girard was the French minister (Paris), Année 34, VII (July, Port-au-Prince in July, 1915. --- Page 85 --- THE INTERVENTION incursions into about the moral rightness of military had qualms Secretary of State Lansing took a friendly neighboring countries. Wilson a few days after the decidedly cynical approach, writing intervention: of as we had at Vera Cruz, to take over We have no excuse reprisal the offices. There would appear to the city government and administer be for doing sO, and that me to be but one reason which could given the famine situation. is the humane duty of furnishing means to the relieve collection of customs on If our naval authorities should take over on the ground of dire imports and exports these might be expended necessity for the relief of the starving people." were caused by Haitian guerrillas cutting Since food shortages of their military resistoff roads to marine-occupied cities as a part humanitarian argument ance to American intervention, Lansing's was doubly specious. United States sailors and marines landed Three hundred thirty reinforced by Port-au-Prince on July 28, 1915, and were quickly at Guantânamo Bay, Cuba. As the New York troops dispatched from "The force being sent to Haiti is much Times remarked on July 31, of foreign interests." larger than is necessary for mere protection sanctified by the spilling of The intervention was immediately sailors, one of whom was a American blood as two American killed in action. The two men nephew of Samuel Gompers, were and newspaper reports as were described in American diplomatic President Wilson expressed having been killed by Haitian snipers." these first casualties proved to his personal condolences, but even that was to be conbe lacking in the romantic battlefield pageantry military skirmishes in spicuously absent in many of the American disclosed that there were no Haiti. Subsequent military reports where the two sailors were indications of enemy fire in the area shot in the night by rifle fire killed and that they were accidentally Battalion, which was untrained from their comrades in the Seaman strain in unfamiliar surfor shore action and under severe nervous by the sound of conroundings." 12 The Americans were intimidated but there was no in the city throughout the night, stant firing form of celebration at danger since the firing was just a traditional the fall of a tyrant." spicuously absent in many of the American disclosed that there were no Haiti. Subsequent military reports where the two sailors were indications of enemy fire in the area shot in the night by rifle fire killed and that they were accidentally Battalion, which was untrained from their comrades in the Seaman strain in unfamiliar surfor shore action and under severe nervous by the sound of conroundings." 12 The Americans were intimidated but there was no in the city throughout the night, stant firing form of celebration at danger since the firing was just a traditional the fall of a tyrant." --- Page 86 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED that landed in Haiti were unMany of the American troops conditions which familiar with the abject poverty and unsanitary of picthem. Port-au-Prince, with its background now surrounded of the most beautiful harbors in the turesque mountains, was one but first impressions on landing world when viewed from the sea, exotic adventure One young marine, anticipating were unfavorable. described his first day ashore as follows: in a tropical paradise, later had turned into a pigsty. More than that, It hurt, It stunk, Fairyland We could feel it as distinctly as we could smell we were not welcome. In the street were piles of evil-smelling the rot along the gutters. . Piles of mango seeds were heaped offal. The stench hung over everything, It was not merely that these, in the middle of the highway, sour-smelling. were rotting-the whole mingled with banana peels and other garbage, class have the ugliest of the working prospect was flthy. . . Haitians I somehow blamed them for the feet in the world. In my bewilderment stood. We were all annoyed. horrid things on which they of the Haitians also tended to make things unpleasThe hostility curfew patrols were forced ant for the newly arrived marines. Night streets of Port-au-Prince in to march warily down the middle of the from showered with household waste dropped order to avoid being darkened second-story windows." the invasion, both at Port-auOrganized military resistance to the country where Prince and at the other locations throughout Admiral Caperton, the American troops were landed, was minimal. cabled Secretary of the senior officer in charge of the intervention, Navy Daniels and President Wilson: intervention in affairs a military U.S. has now actually accomplished in Haiti and has existed for a of another nation. Hostility exists now Serious hostile contacts have only number of years against such action. military action which has given U.S. been avoided by prompt and rapid control before resistance has had time to organize." military superiority of American Faced with the overwhelming to resist the intervenforces, those Haitians who were determined bands. tion took to the hills and there organized guerrilla authorities found that At the time of the intervention American charge of the intervention, Navy Daniels and President Wilson: intervention in affairs a military U.S. has now actually accomplished in Haiti and has existed for a of another nation. Hostility exists now Serious hostile contacts have only number of years against such action. military action which has given U.S. been avoided by prompt and rapid control before resistance has had time to organize." military superiority of American Faced with the overwhelming to resist the intervenforces, those Haitians who were determined bands. tion took to the hills and there organized guerrilla authorities found that At the time of the intervention American --- Page 87 --- THE INTERVENTION the general economic Port-au-Prince, situation, and especially the food was disorganized. Under the supply in vasion, many additional economic impact of military inpended. The situation was further functions were temporarily susrilla forces, erstwhile complicated when Haitian in cacos, cut off the food gueran attempt to exert supplies to major cities States, which assumed pressure on United States forces. The United a measure of tary control, was thus called responsibility along with milipopulation of Port-au-Prince upon to provide relief for the destitute could be restored. until such time as the food Secretary Daniels, assessing the supply ing to racial stereotypes of Haitians accordinstead of viewing them Negroes in the Southern United States about the effects that as a distinct foreign people, was free relief might skeptical to President Wilson: "It is have upon them, and wrote visions because the Haitiens very dangerous to begin to supply prothe war and would quit work are like negroes in the South after Government entirely, deserting undertakes to feed them.' >> 17 plantations if our This wholesale misapplication of the American historical experience with presumed lessons of white of misinformation and Negroes indicates the extent of cognizant United States prejudice which typically clouded the minds slur, Daniels officials. Aside from the was badly confused, since the implicit racial volved feeding the urban problem in Haiti inpopulation of over, there were no plantations in Haiti Port-au-Prince and, moreAmerican South during the Civil War comparable to those in the apprehensions, navy doctors and medical era. In spite of Daniels' work among "a large population of sick corpsmen undertook relief people" in Port-au-Prince in August, and practically starving sonnel, aided by the American Red 1915,15 The navy medical perof $1,500 in January, 1916, Cross, which contributed a fund Haitians in Port-au-Prince gave medical attention to indigent to those who had been and distributed food on a regular basis was the of investigated and certified as destitute. This beginning a long series of constructive projects originated by the navy medical that humanitarian throughout the occupation. corps was to continue Shortly after intervening, the United States treasury service to the restored the Haitian which had been deprived of American-controlled the Banque Nationale, service by the Haitian government , 1916, Cross, which contributed a fund Haitians in Port-au-Prince gave medical attention to indigent to those who had been and distributed food on a regular basis was the of investigated and certified as destitute. This beginning a long series of constructive projects originated by the navy medical that humanitarian throughout the occupation. corps was to continue Shortly after intervening, the United States treasury service to the restored the Haitian which had been deprived of American-controlled the Banque Nationale, service by the Haitian government --- Page 88 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 during a dispute earlier in the year, and officers to supervise the collection of all assigned American naval toms and financial adjustments customs duties. These cusof United States fulflled long-standing objectives Haitian diplomacy and resulted in effective control of the customhouses government's purse strings. American officers who and local government administration took over palled at the inefficiency and were often aptutions. The marine officer who corruption characteristic of local instiJérémie audited the took charge of the coastal town of mayor's books and graft. 19 A navy pay corps officer, under found evidence of extensive authority over all port activities and orders to assume "complete found that customs facilities coastwise trade" at Petit Goâve, included as weights to measure for duties." stones and pieces of iron used landings United States forces Within several weeks of the agencies and were in control of all revenues in the coastal towns governmental trol of the occupied towns and of Haiti. Military conaccording to the cities varied in style and personalities of local emphasis American authority was predominant. commanders, but in all cases a veteran of other banana The marine officer at Jérémie, have the absolute wars, remarked that "in Cuba we didn't With authority we had here."2 American forces in effective tion turned to the problem of control, the Wilson administrachinery through which the United developing suitable political maApparently little advance States could govern the country. lem, since both Wilson and consideration had been given to the probshould proceed. Both Lansing were uncertain as to how agreed on the necessity of they occupation but at the outset neither had prolonged military could be done within the framework any clear idea of how this sixth day after the intervention, of international law. On the "not at all sure what we ought to Lansing do wrote Wilson that he was Wilson replied that he too feared or what we legally can do." authority to do what we that "we have not the legal States must send sufficient apparently ought to do" but that the United and troops to subordinate local completely control the country. authorities Wilson insisted that "constitutional Excepting these irregularities, maintained, but he did not government" be established and stitution should be specify 22 that the existing Haitian Conterest the United respected. In keeping with the States had in establishing order continuing inand stability in to Lansing do wrote Wilson that he was Wilson replied that he too feared or what we legally can do." authority to do what we that "we have not the legal States must send sufficient apparently ought to do" but that the United and troops to subordinate local completely control the country. authorities Wilson insisted that "constitutional Excepting these irregularities, maintained, but he did not government" be established and stitution should be specify 22 that the existing Haitian Conterest the United respected. In keeping with the States had in establishing order continuing inand stability in --- Page 89 --- THE INTERVENTION control over Wilson's plans were to retain military the Caribbean, Haitian could be set up Haiti until a strong and stable government under American auspices." leaders in Haiti favored outright Although American military administration decided to work military government, the Wilson including a Haitian through existing Haitian political machinery, executive. In deciding to set up a Haitian client-president, chief Wilson: "I do not see why it would not be as easy Lansing wrote as it is to control the to control a government with a president officers." >9 24 The first important Haitian Congress and administrative of Haiti was the selection of a step in the political reconstruction military control of Port-au-Prince suitable client-president. By taking the election of Dr. in late July the United States had prevented Haiti. Bobo headed the caco Rosalvo Bobo as the new president of of Sam and was about to apthat the downfall the army precipitated of successful revolution by intimidating propriate the rewards him to the recently vacated presiHaitian legislature into electing accordance with advice given dency. Admiral Caperton, acting in the election and Haitian confidant, postponed him by a prominent the 1,500 caco troops who were demanding took measures to disarm adherents hung together for several the election of Bobo." Bobo's been told by Admiral weeks, until he disbanded them after having forbid his candidacy if the Caperton that the United States would troops remained in the city." accomplishment. Dr. Bobo was a man of considerable personal medicine from the had traveled widely, held degrees in law and He and London, and was fluent in many languages. universities of Paris Caperton's chief of staff who represented Captain Edward L. Beach, with Bobo and who wrote a lengthy the admiral in all dealings commented that Bobo chronicle describing the various negotiations, the and needy sick beloved in Haiti because poor "was greatly his and none of these ever always had the first call on services, unbalbill from him, 99 but Beach noted that Bobo was received a "idealist and dreamer," was "utterly unsuited to anced and, as an had been known to President." 27 Moreover, Bobo long be Haiti's of United States encroachthe State Department as an opponent the McDonald railroad ments in Haiti. In 1911 Bobo had opposed minister of the interior in 1914 and fig banana concessions, and as "was greatly his and none of these ever always had the first call on services, unbalbill from him, 99 but Beach noted that Bobo was received a "idealist and dreamer," was "utterly unsuited to anced and, as an had been known to President." 27 Moreover, Bobo long be Haiti's of United States encroachthe State Department as an opponent the McDonald railroad ments in Haiti. In 1911 Bobo had opposed minister of the interior in 1914 and fig banana concessions, and as --- Page 90 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 American customs receiverhe had worked to thwart the proposed revolution against Sam was to ship." The proclaimed object of his American receivership." ,20 the "tremendous disgrace" of an believed prevent liabilities, Caperton and Lansing On top of all his other Given these grave misgivthat Bobo was bordering on insanity." to look for an alternative about Bobo," a the United States began ings candidate. Admiral Caperton apIn seeking a suitable client-president, politicians: J- N. Leger, proached three of Haiti's most distinguished minister to Washington; who for twelve years had been Haitian in and Solon Menos, who was the current minister Washington; with J. N. Leger, F. D. Légitime. Each declined, former president as "Haiti's most distinguished whom Captain Beach recommended "I am for >> peremptorily refusing with this explanation: citizen," States; Haiti's president will have to accept Haiti, not for the United States and I propose to keep directions and orders from the United defend Haiti's interests." 99 81 myself in a position where I will be able to referred to as "X" in CapCaperton's trusted Haitian confidant, also refused to chronicle and probably J. N. Leger, tain Beach's because of the ignominy of holding form a provisional government 82 office under American auspices." to associate Faced with the reluctance of the foremost politicians Sudre Caperton turned to Philippe themselves with the Occupation, Haitian Senate, who was eager to Dartiguenave, president of the his candidacy to volunteer his services. Dartiguenave, in declaring States guarantee to Beach, insisted only that the United financial Captain elected. He agreed to United States protect him if he were and offered to cede Môle-Saintcontrol and customs receivership, which the recommending to Beach a plan by Nicolas outright, at the Môle before the election, United States would land troops later." In negotiating his with a formal treaty of cession coming Dartiguenave also candidacy with United States representatives, difficulties bemade specific commitments to settle outstanding Nationale and to the Haitian government and the Banque tween similar to United States treatment The ambivalent reaction to Bosch Bobo in is strikingly the 1960s. See John Bartlow Martin, Overof Dominican President Juan Crisis from the Fall of Trujillo to the Civil War taken by Events: The Dominican (Garden City, N.Y., 1966). troops later." In negotiating his with a formal treaty of cession coming Dartiguenave also candidacy with United States representatives, difficulties bemade specific commitments to settle outstanding Nationale and to the Haitian government and the Banque tween similar to United States treatment The ambivalent reaction to Bosch Bobo in is strikingly the 1960s. See John Bartlow Martin, Overof Dominican President Juan Crisis from the Fall of Trujillo to the Civil War taken by Events: The Dominican (Garden City, N.Y., 1966). --- Page 91 --- THE INTERVENTION by the Amerithe various claims made against the government pay can-owned National Railway." and claimed to conDartiguenave headed a faction of legislators from Capertrol the Haitian congress which, under strong pressure insisted on effective made it clear that the United States ton (who Bobo's supporters, who control), was to elect the new president. active in the interior of the councontrolled the guerrilla forces still the Committee and included the leading citizens who comprised try through which Caperton governed Port-au-Prince, of Public Safety Dartiguenave was threatwere still the dominant political group. if he did not withdraw his candiened with immediate assassination marine bodyguard by dacy; he was then provided with a nine-man the Americans." Bobo emerged as the leading With Dartiguenave and having series of interviews with candidates, Captain Beach conducted a Bobo's limitations as a longthem in order to select the better man. were well known, but time opponent of United States interests trusted Haitian Dartiguenave also had his drawbacks. Caperton's but preferred him to confidant "X" did not think highly of Bobo, "surrounded by whom "X" characterized as being candiDartiguenave which accounts for his grafters with whom he has grafted, deteriorate with each dacy." 36 Bobo, seeing his chances for selection concessions the United passing day, desperately offered to make any in the series of interviews States might demand, but Dartiguenave, favorable impression than did the with Beach, made a much more and 37 Admiral temperamental Bobo, who became irate impetuous. where Bobo recommended Dartiguenave to Washington, Caperton with disfavor because of his anti-American backwas already viewed "Allow election of President to take ground, and Daniels replied, The U.S. prefers election of Dartiplace whenever Haitians wish. Allen White that, "Of Daniels later confessed to William guenave. and I know that this was equivalent to America making course, you President. >9 38 Dartiguenave within the Wilson administration about There were some qualms employed by the United States in the heavy-handed methods being "I confess that this method of Haiti. Lansing wrote to Wilson: the Haytien Capital, is high negotiation, with our marines policing sovereign rights and handed. It does not meet my sense of a nation's Haitians wish. Allen White that, "Of Daniels later confessed to William guenave. and I know that this was equivalent to America making course, you President. >9 38 Dartiguenave within the Wilson administration about There were some qualms employed by the United States in the heavy-handed methods being "I confess that this method of Haiti. Lansing wrote to Wilson: the Haytien Capital, is high negotiation, with our marines policing sovereign rights and handed. It does not meet my sense of a nation's --- Page 92 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1984 exercise of force and an invasion of Haytien is more or less an independence. 99 39 was of the Navy Daniels, known as an anti-imperialist, Secretary Cabinet officers for his role in the intervention. chided by his fellow Frank K. Lane, with a wink toward Secretary of the Interior Daniels at a Cabinet meeting as President Wilson, addressed and another colleague, referring "Josephus the First, King of Haiti," "Will the canto the election of Dartiguenave, asked mockingly, in?" Daniels did didate you and Lansing picked manage to squeeze Franklin D. Roosevelt, the situation and later wrote not appreciate of the Navy in 1915, that "You know who was Assistant Secretary forced to do in Haiti was a bitter pill for me, that the things we were policy that even hinted of for I have always hated any foreign imperialistic control." 1915, by the Dartiguenave was elected president on August 12, of United which convened under the protection Haitian legislature, instead of under the protection of a revolutionary States Marines that election "was Daniels later stated Dartiguenave's caco army. the choice of the mass of the Haitian people but undoubtedly not America was essential." 41 only of those who felt that intervention by thanked Caperton's chief After his election Dartiguenave personally that Beach ride in the same car of staff Captain Beach and insisted Later Beach remarked that with him in the inaugural procession. has repeatedly and publicly "Since his election, he [Dartiguenave] to do everything the made known his intention, without reservation, who was subsequently U.S. wishes." > Beach felt that Dartiguenave, American colony in Portnicknamed "The Cat" by members of the of Haiti could best be honestly believed that the interests au-Prince, with the United States." served by complete cooperation American authorities, the clientAs had been anticipated by was unable to control government established by Dartiguenave military support. Because political unrest without direct American and inuneasiness in Port-au-Prince of this as well as increasing and the American against the government flammatory propaganda declared martial law on September occupation, Admiral Caperton election. e Along 3, 1915. less than a month after Dartiguenave's was taken verbatim or copied from the Much of the martial law proclamation Cruz, Mexico. Caperton to Daniels, Sept. 2, same form as that used in 1914 at Vera 1915. FR; 1915, pp. 484-85. political unrest without direct American and inuneasiness in Port-au-Prince of this as well as increasing and the American against the government flammatory propaganda declared martial law on September occupation, Admiral Caperton election. e Along 3, 1915. less than a month after Dartiguenave's was taken verbatim or copied from the Much of the martial law proclamation Cruz, Mexico. Caperton to Daniels, Sept. 2, same form as that used in 1914 at Vera 1915. FR; 1915, pp. 484-85. --- Page 93 --- THE INTERVENTION of martial law, Caperton issued a contingent with the declaration stated: censorship promulgation which will not be interfered with, but license will The freedom of the press of false or incendiary propaganda not be tolerated. The publishing United States or the Government of Haiti, against the Government of the obscene letters of any false, indecent, or propaganda, or the publishing which tends to disturb the public peace signed or unsigned, or matter courts." will be dealt with by the military political offenders were tried in Martial law, by which Haitian continued in effect until the strikes United States military courts, informed the Americans that the and riots of 1929. Dartiguenave facilitate the passing of declaration of martial law would greatly to legalize the Haitian-American treaty that was the proposed occupation." occupation, control of all customEven with effective military client-presirevenues, and a handpicked houses and governmental felt it necessary to legalize the dent, the Wilson administration with the client-government occupation by means of a formal treaty declaration by the United in Haiti. This treaty, in effect a unilateral solemn moral and was to be cited throughout the 1920s as a States, the occupation. Immediately after legal commitment to continue instructed the American the election of Dartiguenave, Lansing that would incorporate chargé at Port-au-Prince to negotiate a treaty unsuccessful negotiations all the demands made by Bryan during the the United States took which preceded the intervention. In addition, and privileged advantage of its greatly improved bargaining position to live under the relationship with Dartiguenave, who continued concessions. Lansing protection of a marine bodyguard, to exact new the lines of the wrote to Wilson that the new treaty was "along last July [1914]. which was sought to be negotiated a year ago treaty several alterations and additions covering the It, of course, makes and granting to this Government a ground far more thoroughly the treaty proposed. >2 The much more extensive control than original financial included the appointment of an all-powerful additions of the United States, establishment of a adviser by the president settlement of organized and officered by Americans, constabulary and American control of public works." foreign claims, Wilson that the new treaty was "along last July [1914]. which was sought to be negotiated a year ago treaty several alterations and additions covering the It, of course, makes and granting to this Government a ground far more thoroughly the treaty proposed. >2 The much more extensive control than original financial included the appointment of an all-powerful additions of the United States, establishment of a adviser by the president settlement of organized and officered by Americans, constabulary and American control of public works." foreign claims, --- Page 94 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 American military force and the Despite the presence of a strong experienced difficooperation of President Dartiguenave, ratified Caperton by the Haitian legislaculties in getting the proposed treaty the was allowed the first two years of occupation, ture which, during patience and diplomacy were to remain in existence. Caperton's that the United States tried to the utmost, and at times he thought and abandon efforts to might have to set up a military government institutions." Part of the work through established Haitian political in Dartigueamong the legislators difficulty was disappointment which had been unable to bestow offices nave's client-government, because of American control over all reveand expend public funds repeated pledges of a loan and nue." More than this, Caperton's backed by the State Department. American financial aid were not up had promised for ratification of the treaty, Caperton In pressing financial embarrassment of the funds to alleviate the desperate made allusions to a bright economic Dartiguenave government and to the State Defuture for the whole country." 48 Caperton's requests funds held by partment for a loan and for the release of government denied. The AmerBanque Nationale were the American-controlled advance of funds, saying: "I am convinced ican chargé also urged an its best efforts to secure ratification by that the Government is using hampered and ratification Congress but its efforts are being seriously >9 49 endangered by the withholding of the gourdes." bail out the Haitian urgently recommended a loan to Caperton had salaries and was suffering sinking government, which unpaid "in educating counmoreover, had incurred expenses prestige, and, treaty. >9 He argued that unkept try to realize necessity of ratifying were weakening the posipromises made by the State Department and that "enemies of the tion of the Dartiguenave government advantage of this apparent United States and of the treaty are taking in this matter." 99 50 American is involved lack of support. . . . prestige had decided to withhold funds For its part, the State Department of the treaty and advised Caperton as a means of forcing ratification of the Dartiguenave govand Chargé Davis that the embarrassment of the treaty the ernment would only be temporary." After passage be until maintained that a loan could not procured State Department between the Haitian governafter a settlement had been reached the loan for Nationale. 52 In playing proffered ment and the Banque 50 American is involved lack of support. . . . prestige had decided to withhold funds For its part, the State Department of the treaty and advised Caperton as a means of forcing ratification of the Dartiguenave govand Chargé Davis that the embarrassment of the treaty the ernment would only be temporary." After passage be until maintained that a loan could not procured State Department between the Haitian governafter a settlement had been reached the loan for Nationale. 52 In playing proffered ment and the Banque --- Page 95 --- THE INTERVENTION increasing the worth Lansing, who earlier had suggested all it was "to avoid their being liable to graft salaries of Haitian legislators in his attitude 99 was apparently being more cynical temptations, toward Haitian politics than was Caperton." by Caperton and With the poor coordination in tactics employed of efforts to secure ratifiand the breakdown the State Department employed threats and intimidation cation by persuasion, Caperton November, 1915, he asked Darwhich proved successful. In early senators hostile to the treaty SO that tiguenave for the names of the and a week later he relayed personal pressure might be applied, Haitian Cabinet that orders from Daniels to inform the to defeat the treaty are rife, but are not believed. Rumors of bribery those who accept or give bribes will However, should they prove true, had been instructed to make the be vigourously prosecuted. [Caperton clear to remove all opposition and threat of prosecution] . . . sufficiently to secure immediate ratification." the Haitian Senate the next day, and went The treaty was ratified by action by the United States into effect as a modus vivendi pending and without debate Senate, which ratified the treaty unanimously in February, 1916." the United States would aid Haiti in The treaty provided that Haitian finances on a firm basis. economic development and establish and receiver of financial adviser general An American-appointed control over Haitian government ficustoms would have extensive its customs duties or and Haiti was forbidden to modify nances, without United States approval. The United increase its public debt and the would and officer a Haitian gendarmerie, States organize to execute an arbitration protocol with Haitian government agreed of foreign claims. The treaty was the United States for settlement from the date of exchange of ratificato remain in force for ten years the governwhich was May 3, 1916. Efforts by Dartiguenave tions, in the drafting of the treaty were ment to effectively participate memorandum noted that "The thwarted. A later State Department it that this treaty Government attempted to make appear Haitian rather than dictated and suggested several had been negotiated - but the department had insisted on its own changes in phraseology, phraseology. 56 The treaty was the United States for settlement from the date of exchange of ratificato remain in force for ten years the governwhich was May 3, 1916. Efforts by Dartiguenave tions, in the drafting of the treaty were ment to effectively participate memorandum noted that "The thwarted. A later State Department it that this treaty Government attempted to make appear Haitian rather than dictated and suggested several had been negotiated - but the department had insisted on its own changes in phraseology, phraseology. 56 --- Page 96 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1984 UNITED Beach, who had successfully comAdmiral Caperton and Captain and mission of forming a client-government pleted their assigned in 1916. Caperton had been the procuring the treaty, left Haiti early for a year and in this capacsenior officer in charge of the occupation rather than force. He took ity had attempted to rule by persuasion and was personally liked by great pains not to offend Haitian pride referred to him as a the Haitian elite. One Haitian contemporary dancer who held his "beau vieillard svelte" and an indefatigable representative ashore, partners tightly." Captain Beach, Caperton's calls at Haitian homes where excellent French and paid social spoke the elite." he made friends among and consideration toward the Caperton's policy of sympathy Daniels, who later stated that by Haitians was officially encouraged themselves as friendly brothers he had ordered "all officers to regard people. >> 59 Some of the Haitians sent there to help these neighbor that it was desirable effort was also made to instruct American troops that landed at Cap The detachments to make a good impression. Haitians with "utmost kindness and Haîtien were ordered to treat gestures toward consideration" and to make friendly, if patronizing, pat advised that "A cheerful word, a friendly them. The troops were goes far to vitiate the sting on the man's back or the horse's rump, the natural feeling of and will do much to change of humiliation >> 60 Cursing and shoving resentment to one of respect and friendship." of relations beIn general, the problem personal the were prohibited. and Haitians was not acute at the time of tween occupying forces intervention. the occupation entered With the departure of Admiral Caperton who had been comColonel Littleton W. T. Waller, a new phase. Forces in Haiti and was now mander of the Marine Expeditionary succeeded Caperton the commander of the First Marine Brigade, American Financial Adsenior United States officer in Haiti. as the viser Addison T. Ruan later remarked: in Haiti, one of force and one of conciliation. We have used two policies conciliation. He made personal friends of Admiral Caperton employed with them. General Waller, seconded by leading Haitians, by associating Butler, adopted a policy of force.s Colonel (now Brigadier General) . Waller, a new phase. Forces in Haiti and was now mander of the Marine Expeditionary succeeded Caperton the commander of the First Marine Brigade, American Financial Adsenior United States officer in Haiti. as the viser Addison T. Ruan later remarked: in Haiti, one of force and one of conciliation. We have used two policies conciliation. He made personal friends of Admiral Caperton employed with them. General Waller, seconded by leading Haitians, by associating Butler, adopted a policy of force.s Colonel (now Brigadier General) --- Page 97 --- THE INTERVENTION ashore, Waller had subordinate in charge of marines as As Caperton's with the admiral, whom he referred to not gotten along well up the men who are 99 complaining that, "Instead of backing After "insane, he knifes them when they do well." Caperworking for him, "Since he left I have accomplished ton's departure Waller asserted, amount of work." 99 62 a great recognized that tact was necessary Colonel Waller apparently cautioned his impulsive friend in dealing with Haitians and once not to be crude in his Major Smedley D. Butler, and subordinate, "There is more harm done by such treatment of the elite because, months of work and labor."" an act than can be remedied by however, were difficult and Waller's own relations with Haitians, of his racial prejudices, which strained. This was largely because to one Haitian supplicant approached outright scorn. He referred saw" and wrote to his "the blackest bluegum nigger you ever in as A. Lejeune o that "Thes people are niggers friend Colonel John education and refinement. Down in their spite of the thin varnish of idle irresponsible people we hearts they are just the same happy, know of." 64 class, believed that Waller disliked Haitians of the elite governing crook as any of the client-President Dartiguenave was "as big a the whole of stated that "There is not an honest men in others," and His racial prejudice precluded cordial Haiti of Haitian nationality." level; he confided to Colonel relations even at the ceremonial Lejeune: are some very fine looking, They are real nigger and no mistake-There but are real nigs beneath the well educated polished men here and they Portsmouth would say if they surface. What the people of Norfolk these coons-I do not know-All the saw me bowing and scraping to formal same I do not wish to be outdone in politenes." behavior and insulting directives Waller quickly By undiplomatic At one point Waller threatincurred the enmity of Dartiguenave. in hostile Port-au-Prince ened to leave Dartiguenave unprotected and sucthis time assistant to the commandant in Washington, Lejeune was at of the Marine Corps in 1920. Both ceeded General George Barnett as commandant to brigadier general in 1916. Lejeune and Waller were promoted the saw me bowing and scraping to formal same I do not wish to be outdone in politenes." behavior and insulting directives Waller quickly By undiplomatic At one point Waller threatincurred the enmity of Dartiguenave. in hostile Port-au-Prince ened to leave Dartiguenave unprotected and sucthis time assistant to the commandant in Washington, Lejeune was at of the Marine Corps in 1920. Both ceeded General George Barnett as commandant to brigadier general in 1916. Lejeune and Waller were promoted --- Page 98 --- 1915-1934 OCCUPATION OF HAITI, UNITED STATES if hours DartigueAmerican forces for twenty-four 66 by withdrawing to the State Department* between nave continued to complain marines made a sharp distinetion accomWaller and many other and the elite, whose cultural Waller the masses of Haitian peasants Toward the end of his stay in Haiti, but not on plishments they derided. with the people find myself intensely popular >67 Major Smedley said, *I with the ministers of the government." his father, Congressman good terms shared this bias. In 1916 he wrote elite antagonist: D. Butler e concerning the death of an Thomas S. Butler," attacked of one of the prominent politicians The Gendarme Last night the nephew sentries, Sring three shots at him. fist, thus endone of our Gendarme fnally blew a hole in him as big as there your is a big uproar pursued him, and, cockroach. This morning shooting of this ing the life of a miserable citizens over the "unjustifBable" will only get busy and among the prominent However, if all the leaders leader of society. will soon clean up this country." attack sentries we the population into two categories: shoes. Butler divided the Haitian and the 1 percent who wore the elite, who went barefoot but despised 99 percent affection for the poor peasants a sense of humor He expressed observing that "Without the shoe whom he "took as a joke," those people, among Butler's could not live in Haiti among of the Haitian elite, elite you and sensitivity class." 69 Given the pride Disdain for the educated imof humor was not appreciated. for the uneducated, sense expressions of affection racist values in and complementary contemporary with masses paralleled sometimes poverished peasant where Negroes were accepted, s while those who the United States, "stayed in their place; to attack as fondness, SO long as they or ambition were subject exhibited wealth, education, de- "uppity niggers." the elient-government was completely it and the fact that relations between Despite American military protection, In mid-1916, Butler pendent upon team deteriorated rapidly. the Waller-Butler Colonel Lejeune: the Sixth and Seventh wrote member of Congress representing time he served as chair- . Thomas S. Butler was from a 1897 to 1928. For part of this districts of Pennsylvania Naval Affairs Subcommittee. man of the as fondness, SO long as they or ambition were subject exhibited wealth, education, de- "uppity niggers." the elient-government was completely it and the fact that relations between Despite American military protection, In mid-1916, Butler pendent upon team deteriorated rapidly. the Waller-Butler Colonel Lejeune: the Sixth and Seventh wrote member of Congress representing time he served as chair- . Thomas S. Butler was from a 1897 to 1928. For part of this districts of Pennsylvania Naval Affairs Subcommittee. man of the --- Page 99 --- THE INTERVENTION what I think of them and if I I have told these miserable ministers until March, 1918] they know exactly stay here [Butler remained in Haiti deadline drawn between me and what to expect. . . . There will be a the British agents the Haitiens, the same as there is in Egypt-between has lied to me two or three and the Egyptians. . . . This Government trust it or in it."0 times, and I do not intend again to anybody both Waller and Butler favored unimpaired military govIn fact, arrangement with Dartiguenave. ernment to the client-government governor of Santo Domingo Waller wrote the United States military in mind that a just military that "There has never been any doubt my Haiti." 71 government is the method of controlling of the Waller-Butler period The arrogant treatment characteristic some of those who had served to disillusion many Haitians, even for construcwelcomed the American intervention as an opportunity American Dr. William W. Cumberland, the leading tive reform. observed that "I regret to say that civilian official of a later period, constant turmoil with the some of the earlier authorities were in 99 Cumberland deHaitians, usually on racial and personal grounds." with about as little tact as scribed Butler e as a "misfit" and "a man some of us had the could ever meet," and added that, "For years >> 72 one to heal up the scars which that gentleman left." job of trying that Nicaraguan mothers invoked the memory of In 1921 the Nation reported their children; the expression "Hush! Major Butler when they wished to frighten been a maternal warning in Nicaragua for years. Butler will get you" had allegedly 23, 1921), 278. Natton CXII, No. 2903 (Feb. --- Page 100 --- The Marines Take Charge There had been little organized of United States forces in July, 1915. military opposition to the landing termined to resist the United States Those Haitians who were deinterior of the country where a number occupation of withdrew into the the revolution against President caco armies, supporting were already in the field. Sam and the candidacy of Dr. Bobo, equipped Subjugating these bands of tive of the guerrillas was the original and continuing poorly marine forces in Haiti. military objecCaco armies consisted of peasant soldiers short-term military adventures who were enlisted in interior of Haiti, especially in the by wild regional military chiefs in the regional chiefs, self-styled and mountainous north. The ticians who provided funds generals, and were allied with urban poliAmerican intervention, political leadership. Prior to the hind the cacos had provided the numerous Haitian revolutions, military punch beon behalf of successive serving as mercenary armies only with machetes and presidential obsolete candidates. They were armed mobility and were able to rifles, but possessed great tactical pursued by superior forces. disappear A into the countryside when from an ordinary caco soldier was peasant once he had indistinguishable removed a small identifying red discarded his weapon and continued to be characterized patch from his clothing. Cacos simply as bandits in American military the hind the cacos had provided the numerous Haitian revolutions, military punch beon behalf of successive serving as mercenary armies only with machetes and presidential obsolete candidates. They were armed mobility and were able to rifles, but possessed great tactical pursued by superior forces. disappear A into the countryside when from an ordinary caco soldier was peasant once he had indistinguishable removed a small identifying red discarded his weapon and continued to be characterized patch from his clothing. Cacos simply as bandits in American military --- Page 101 --- THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE of the fact that caco efforts were eventually reports, irrespective political objective of driving directed solely toward the nationalistic the Americans into the sea. e of American While the marine landings and the establishment with ease, the in the coastal cities were accomplished authority in the interior was complicated and diffcult. problem of pacification remained loyal to exiled presidential candiNumerous caco bands interfered with food supplies to Amerdate Dr. Rosalvo Bobo. Cacos and imican-occupied coastal cities, raided marine encampments, of these bands was peded railroad communications. Pacification the intervention. Thereachieved during the six months following throughout the with the establishment of marine outposts after, declined until the American forced-labor interior, caco activities 1918 and the massive Haitian uprisings of road-building program of 1918-19. in 1915 was carried out by the compleThe initial pacification to turn in their weapons, and by mentary devices of bribing cacos Of the two alternatives forceful marine pursuit and extermination. and undertook negotiaAdmiral Caperton at first preferred bribery Caperton chiefs immediately after the intervention." tions with caco in Port-au-Prince by managed to disarm Dr. Bobo's supporters but the cacos in threatening not to consider him for the presidency, after the Amerthe interior were more difficult to handle, especially Negotiations with icans had definitely rejected Bobo's candidacy. entailed dickering for surrender of troops and arms the caco generals to be awarded as compensation, with over the amount of money and Robin, at first demanding $200,000. two leading generals, Zamor out of the question and that the Caperton stated that this sum was to bleed the Amerwas "to a great extent an attempt modest terms, proposition number of chiefs eventually agreed to more icans.". A collected from the Haitian customs and Caperton, dispensing moneys purchased large receivership on behalf of the client-government, bribes to caco generals. The quantities of rifles and paid appropriate of 596 rifles at $5 single transaction involved the purchase largest the payment of $6,600 to three generals." violated each, plus offers of bribes and others Many cacos refused to accept Duvalier outfitted his militia with red arma In the 1960s, President François as an appeal to Haitian nationalism. bands reminiscent of caco insignia the Haitian customs and Caperton, dispensing moneys purchased large receivership on behalf of the client-government, bribes to caco generals. The quantities of rifles and paid appropriate of 596 rifles at $5 single transaction involved the purchase largest the payment of $6,600 to three generals." violated each, plus offers of bribes and others Many cacos refused to accept Duvalier outfitted his militia with red arma In the 1960s, President François as an appeal to Haitian nationalism. bands reminiscent of caco insignia --- Page 102 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 chiefs and remained under arms. Those agreements signed by their were subjected to who did not come to terms with the Americans indeed, marine vigorous pursuit and decimation by marine patrols; the period of hunt-and-kill operations were sustained throughout remarked that, negotiations. In September, 1915, Admiral Caperton the north without while he regretted not having been able to pacify of greater bloodshed, the "severe lesson" to the cacos might "prove them off eventual settlement of affairs than buying beneft in the also had the advantage of would have been." The military pressure negotiations by intimidating acting as a stimulus to the surrender alarmed Secretary of the the cacos, but reports of Haitian casualties offensive military Daniels and eventually caused him to restrict Navy Daniels ordered that no offensive operations. In early September Washington, and in action be undertaken without first consulting was "strongly November he informed Caperton that the department and that, "In view of impressed with number of Haitians killed" department desires heavy losses to Haitians in recent engagement further loss of offensive to be suspended in order to prevent your life."* skirmishes that had alarmed Daniels was the One of the military was notable because two capture of Fort Rivière. This engagement Smedley D. Butler, participating marines, one of whom was Major of Honor for heroism." were later awarded the Congressional Medal of marine the capture of Fort Rivière was typical In other respects, who were difficult to hunt down but campaigns against the cacos, At the 1921 Senate Hearings on the easily defeated once cornered. Barnett, commandant of the Occupation of Haiti, General George about offensive Marine Corps from 1914 to 1920, was questioned operations against the cacos: one was the capture of Fort Riviere. GENERAL BARNETT: One particular That was really quite an affair. at the behest of Assistant Secretary of the Navy a - The medals were awarded visited the site of Fort Rivière in January, 1917. RooseFranklin D. Roosevelt, who Butler's account of the battle, and noted in his travel velt was much impressed by had killed over 200 cacos at Fort Rivière, diary that Butler and 18 companions casualty list reported 51 killed. Franklin D. Roosewhereas the official Marine Corps unpublished travel diary; Roosevelt velt, "Trip to Haiti and Santo Domingo, 1917," MSS, RG10, Box 155. at the behest of Assistant Secretary of the Navy a - The medals were awarded visited the site of Fort Rivière in January, 1917. RooseFranklin D. Roosevelt, who Butler's account of the battle, and noted in his travel velt was much impressed by had killed over 200 cacos at Fort Rivière, diary that Butler and 18 companions casualty list reported 51 killed. Franklin D. Roosewhereas the official Marine Corps unpublished travel diary; Roosevelt velt, "Trip to Haiti and Santo Domingo, 1917," MSS, RG10, Box 155. --- Page 103 --- THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE the affair when there were 51 Haitians killed but no QUESTION: That was casualties on our side? not well BARNETT: It was quite an affair. The Haitians were GENERAL and fought to the best of their ability. [conarmed, but they stood up report of the engagement] All tinues, reading the field commander's the time and Butler and companies were in their position at specified by five other companies. Low's companies made the assault, supported minutes. Twenty-nine killed Hand-to-hand conflict in the fort lasted ten fire from the automatics, but all were killed by and 22 jumped parapet, blocked. all avenues of escape being in fairly characteristic of the operations QUESTION: Was that operation the natives? general conducted by our forces against I should say that was a sample. They had a little GENERAL BARNETT: would have ordinarily, it being an old better protection there than they fort on a high mountain. taken." One marine officer who took part in the No prisoners were the American casualty was a man engagement, recalling that only rock and lost two teeth, remarked who was struck in the face with a did not know what sights were that "We were fighting a people who their rifles and reached for for, and in a tight spot they threw away rocks." 6 marine patrols were generally Caco attacks and ambushes against tense moments in the unsuccessful, although they provided some Butler's group of twentyearly days of campaigning. Major Smedley ambush, was terrifed by surseven marines, trapped in a nighttime their conch shells, but in rounding cacos who blew incessantly on superior marine firedaylight the Haitians were no match against wild after their devilish Butler recalled that his men "went of power. hunted the Cacos like pigs, > killing about seventy-five night and Marine casualties in this them on the day following the ambush." with Butler's group suffering light, campaign were characteristically field commander, Colonel Eli K. only one man wounded. Butler's of the guerrillas and was pleased Cole, had ordered vigorous pursuit "Butler I am glad to say, as he with Butler's performance, stating: in the kind of work we have to is a very good officer, particularly view, and that is that the only way do in the mountains, takes my of the place."* to do the job is by a systematic cleaning up seventy-five night and Marine casualties in this them on the day following the ambush." with Butler's group suffering light, campaign were characteristically field commander, Colonel Eli K. only one man wounded. Butler's of the guerrillas and was pleased Cole, had ordered vigorous pursuit "Butler I am glad to say, as he with Butler's performance, stating: in the kind of work we have to is a very good officer, particularly view, and that is that the only way do in the mountains, takes my of the place."* to do the job is by a systematic cleaning up --- Page 104 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 battlefeld and offered the Faced with marine prowess on the caco resistance alternative of amnesty and reward for surrender, of broke down in the fall of 1915. The first phase turned pacification next to rapidly completed, and the marines had been successfully military agency with which the problem of developing a permanent the authority of the occuorder and institutionalize to maintain pation. of September, 1915, provided that The Haitian-American establish Treaty and officer a Haitian gendarmerie. the United States would native military The practice of developing an American-controlled the United States in Puerto force had previously been employed Gendarmerie by was being organized Rico and Cuba, and, while the Nacional were being set up under Guardias in Haiti, corresponding the other end of the island in the Dominican American auspices on were intended as Republic and in Nicaragua. These constabularies powerful to centralized forces sufficiently efficient, nonpartisan, political regimes and to eliminate ensure continuity of pro-American revolutions. After Amerthe problem of instability caused by cyclical and Nicarawithdrawal from Cuba, the Dominican Republic, ican became bulwarks of the enduring Batista, gua, the constabularies Trujillo, and Somoza dictatorships. a branch of the The Gendarmerie d'Haiti was administratively the force held official and marines who officered client-government, while simultaneously commissions from the Haitian government The first commandant of retaining their rank in the Marine Corps. D. Butler, who took the organization was Marine Major Smedley the rank of Major command in December, 1915, and assumed energetic direction Gendarmerie d'Haiti. Under Butler's General, took shape and legally began to perform the Gendarmerie rapidly police functions in February, 1916. had to contend with was the reA major problem which Butler both for the Haitian rank and cruitment of satisfactory personnel, Haitians, who were induced file and for the American officer corps. month for privates to $25 per to enlist by pay ranging from $10 per uneducated and undermonth for top sergeants, were generally the recruits necessitated nourished. Lack of physical stamina among health measures could lower standards of military discipline until found a sentry on take effect. Butler remarked: "I have frequently endarmerie rapidly police functions in February, 1916. had to contend with was the reA major problem which Butler both for the Haitian rank and cruitment of satisfactory personnel, Haitians, who were induced file and for the American officer corps. month for privates to $25 per to enlist by pay ranging from $10 per uneducated and undermonth for top sergeants, were generally the recruits necessitated nourished. Lack of physical stamina among health measures could lower standards of military discipline until found a sentry on take effect. Butler remarked: "I have frequently --- Page 105 --- THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE building sound asleep, standing up a post in front of an important face. That is not his fault. He was with the sun shining in his that 95 of them had blood diseased. An examination showed percent 92 9 diseases and 85 percent had intestinal worms." of recruits, the great Educational deficiency also was characteristic classes. As was the majority of whom came from the illiterate poorer members of the across the border in the Dominican Republic, case class shunned service in the American constabulary, educated upper reluctance to collaborate with the partly because of nationalistic of the low social status associated Occupation and partly because an officerwork. e Early attempts to set up with subservient police elite failed because of the difficandidate program for the Haitian because of elite hostility to the culty in obtaining volunteers and training. Elite volundemeaning aspects of American-style military resented having to who became social outcasts by enlisting, teers, uniforms and refused to perform menial duties, wear privates' which were facets of American officer such as grooming horses, effort to train ten elite officer-candidate indoctrination. An initial and, although infrequent atvolunteers in 1915 failed completely, there was no effective officer tempts were made in subsequent years, of the Ecole Militaire in training program until the establishment of Haitian officers for the 1928." Up to 1929 the predominant the source ranks. While such promotions Gendarmerie was promotion from limited to the lowest officer ranks, were relatively few in number and of social mobility for lowerthey provided an important new avenue schooling within the Genclass Haitians, who received formal darmerie." when the Gendarmerie officer corps was During the early years, suitable marine volunteers was also exclusively American, finding resulted in a sevenfold inproblem. The war in Europe a difficult strength of the Marine Corps (from 9,968 in crease in the enlisted d'Haiti" at the "Gendarmerie d'Haiti" was changed to "Garde e In 1927 the name client-President Louis Borno in order to remove the social stigma F. B. request of Haitian word "gendarmerie." 99 SD 838.00/2376, C. Gross to associated with the French Kellogg, Aug. 22, 1927. similar difficulties in recruiting officer candidates in the For a description of Goldwert, The Constabulary in the Dominican ReDominican Republic, see Marvin and Legacy of United States Intervention (Gainespublic and Nicaragua: of Florida Press, Progeny 1962), pp. 10-11. ville: Univ. name client-President Louis Borno in order to remove the social stigma F. B. request of Haitian word "gendarmerie." 99 SD 838.00/2376, C. Gross to associated with the French Kellogg, Aug. 22, 1927. similar difficulties in recruiting officer candidates in the For a description of Goldwert, The Constabulary in the Dominican ReDominican Republic, see Marvin and Legacy of United States Intervention (Gainespublic and Nicaragua: of Florida Press, Progeny 1962), pp. 10-11. ville: Univ. --- Page 106 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 and flled the ranks with inex1915 to 72,370 in December, 1918) of the Gendarmerie perienced men. In 1918 the commandant "suitable material" for the characterized the problem of finding 99 12 Even with the improvement Gendarmerie officer corps as "grave." the officer corps of in personnel after the European war was over, In 1922 Major the Gendarmerie remained less than satisfactory. "We have General Wendell C. Neville wrote the State Department: were due to found that most of our troubles in Haiti, for instance, commissions in the Gendarmerie, noncommissioned officers given amenable to our laws notwithstanding the fact that they were this, caliber of marines - 13 In order to attract the best and regulations." officers, volunteers were offered extra for duty as Gendarmerie of higher rank. remuneration and the privileges the Gendarmerie were marine Most of the American officers in commissions by the Haitian enlisted men who were given special continued to receive their regular client-government. All Americans and in addition received pay from pay and allowances as marines between the Marine Corps the Haitian government. Rank equations marine serving as varied, with some privates and the Gendarmerie while some marine sergeants were only captains in the Gendarmerie Pay also varied according to second lieutenants in the Cendarmerie. rank/pay allowances and such. A representative differences in family follows: 14 roster, dating from December, 1918, Pay Rank U.S.° Haitian Govt. Marine Cendarmerie $3,000 LT COL MAJ GEN $5,814 1,800 1st SGT CAPT : 1,500 1,308 1,800 SGT CAPT 1,296 1,200 CPL 1st LT 1,100 PVT 2nd LT e includes allowances. that the Haitian government President Wilson vetoed a suggestion United States for the regular also be required to reimburse the salaries of marines serving in Haiti." in the Gendarmerie The extra pay received by marines serving the duty could be hard since was by no means entirely gratuitous, of deprivation at isolated and often involved prolonged periods GT CAPT : 1,500 1,308 1,800 SGT CAPT 1,296 1,200 CPL 1st LT 1,100 PVT 2nd LT e includes allowances. that the Haitian government President Wilson vetoed a suggestion United States for the regular also be required to reimburse the salaries of marines serving in Haiti." in the Gendarmerie The extra pay received by marines serving the duty could be hard since was by no means entirely gratuitous, of deprivation at isolated and often involved prolonged periods --- Page 107 --- THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE Butler, commandant of the Gendarmerie, interior posts. Smedley in the payment of the bonus complained about an initial delay money to his officers, stating: officers performing duty in the "bushes" are cerNon-commisioned for these wretched people, and I consider it an tainly working like dogs Dartiguenave client-government) is outrage that this Government [the and let them get their pay. Serving not required to sign this agreement, with Haitians with Marines is a matter of duty with us-an honor-serving different, and these men should be paid." is entirely and rank benefits, volunteers for Gendarmerie In addition to pay leave year outside Haiti. Other service received forty-five days' per volunteers were in attracting factors, by no means inconsequential, and the opportunity to be of help the exotic character of the duty Butler expressed his to the Haitians. Gendarmerie Commandant attitude toward duty in Haiti: embued with the fact that we were trustees of a huge estate We were all viewpoint; that was the viewpoint that belonged to minors. That was my were our wards and that we were I personally took, that the Haitians make for them a rich and productive endeavoring to develop and property." his perspective on the American occuYears later, Butler changed the marines had been used as "a pation of Haiti and stated that and that he had personally been glorified bill-collecting agency" he had refused to cooperate with New "canned" in Haiti because not what he was saying at the York banking interests, but this was marine officers for he the Gendarmerie. In recruiting time organized to sympathy for Haiti and emGendarmerie duty Butler appealed phasized Haiti's need of American help." of American Gendarmerie rapidly became the instrument The First Marine Brigade remained as a authority in Haiti. The separate Port-au-Prince and Cap Haitien but substantial garrison force in in times of force to back up the Gendarmerie acted as a reserve governing of the country was the crisis. The ordinary, day-to-day officers, who were omnipotent in responsibility of the Gendarmerie Commander Eli K. Cole reported their assigned localities. Brigade in 1917: Butler appealed phasized Haiti's need of American help." of American Gendarmerie rapidly became the instrument The First Marine Brigade remained as a authority in Haiti. The separate Port-au-Prince and Cap Haitien but substantial garrison force in in times of force to back up the Gendarmerie acted as a reserve governing of the country was the crisis. The ordinary, day-to-day officers, who were omnipotent in responsibility of the Gendarmerie Commander Eli K. Cole reported their assigned localities. Brigade in 1917: --- Page 108 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 the White Officers of the Gendarmerie d'Haiti For a long time to come which we can rely for honest and will form the only organization on of the my policy has been efficient administration in all parts country: by utilizing in all possible the country to extend our influence throughout believe that through them we are going to ways their activities, and I and physical) over the people be able to get a very strong hold (moral of this country." officers exercised authority over most local governGendarmerie matters and, according to personal inclinations, mental and military One young American dominated their respective regions completely. blanc e white father) by the Haitians officer was referred to as papa them in turn as mon fils (my son) in his district, and he addressed Gendarmerie officer, a marine Another and ma fille (my daughter of the island of La Gonave in sergeant, became the crowned king Dr. S. G. Inman, obPort-au-Prince Bay." An American civilian, served: who becomes an officer in the gendarmerie finds himself The marine unlimited power, in the district where he serves. clothed with practically all civil and criminal cases, settling everyHe is the judge of practically murder. He is paymaster for all funds thing from a family fight to a he is ex-officio director of the expended by the national government, teachers. He controls the mayor and schools, inasmuch as he pays the without his o.k. As collector city council, since they can spend no funds individuals in the comof taxes he exercises a strong influence on all munity. was powerful also at the national Under Butler, the Gendarmerie in 1917 as traveling comlevel. An American who went to Haiti Franklin D. Roosevelt panion to Assistant Secretary of the Navy comes pretty near noted that "the actual running of the Government colonels and majors." 99 28 being vested in General Butler and his young effective military of the Gendarmerie as an The development health and illiteracy of the Haitian force, made difficult by the poor barrier. Few marines recruits, was complicated by the language Haitian Creole. The Engknew French and fewer still understood limited to the marchof Haitian gendarmes was lish comprehension racial connotation in Haiti corre- . The term "blanc" came to have a disparaging " but this does not necessarily apply in the sponding to the American term "nigger, above case. and his young effective military of the Gendarmerie as an The development health and illiteracy of the Haitian force, made difficult by the poor barrier. Few marines recruits, was complicated by the language Haitian Creole. The Engknew French and fewer still understood limited to the marchof Haitian gendarmes was lish comprehension racial connotation in Haiti corre- . The term "blanc" came to have a disparaging " but this does not necessarily apply in the sponding to the American term "nigger, above case. --- Page 109 --- THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE barked out by their marine drillmasters. The resulting ing commands of the Gendarmerie were of little conseweaknesses and failings by the major caco uprisings quence until the force was challenged along with the the Gendarmerie, of 1918-19. Prior to these uprisings, easy tasks of supthe relatively First Marine Brigade, performed Dartiguenave and maintaining pressing plots against client-President activities during the period of security against possible German World War I. United States involvement in and important consequences The European war had immediate intervention in 1915 in Haiti. A primary purpose of the American threat of German encroachhad been to counteract the presumed curtail German influence were American efforts to ment. Early United States declared war against Germany intensified after the of German submarines and espionage in April, 1917, after which fear and the marines on the alert until activities kept the Gendarmerie 1918. By means of wartime conthe end of the war in November, of German nationals, along with fiscation of property and internment and effectively deportations, the United States deliberately compostwar interests from participation in Haitian eliminated German for the United merce. The war thus served as a perfect opportunity States to supplant its leading rival in Haiti. there were approxiAt the time of the American intervention Cermano-Haitian wives and mately 210 Germans in Haiti, including about 50 Amerchildren of German nationals, while there were only realizicans." The German element was hostile to the intervention, was now at business of financing revolutions ing that the profitable would discriminate against them in an end and that the Americans of the occupation, and politics. From the very beginning commerce that local Germans were intriguing against Americans suspected them."" Waller linked Germans to the first Marine Brigade Commander in early 1916, serious attempt to assassinate President Dartiguenave the "German menace in the while the New York Herald, bemoaning fomenting revolution in Caribbean, 9? contended that Germans were Haiti: the natives in the mountains and in the The German scheme is to arm in the event President coast cities and bring about a general uprising threat to resign the Presidency. Dartiguenave does not make good his that local Germans were intriguing against Americans suspected them."" Waller linked Germans to the first Marine Brigade Commander in early 1916, serious attempt to assassinate President Dartiguenave the "German menace in the while the New York Herald, bemoaning fomenting revolution in Caribbean, 9? contended that Germans were Haiti: the natives in the mountains and in the The German scheme is to arm in the event President coast cities and bring about a general uprising threat to resign the Presidency. Dartiguenave does not make good his --- Page 110 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 man who is in opposition to DarThose German interests control every brains of the rebellious faction in tiguenave and are supplying the Congress." established" that The Herald stated that "the fact was definitely for arms and in New York City German financiers were negotiating At about this time the War Departammunition to be used in Haiti. dispatch about a mysterious Japanese ment received an alarming to be headed for Haiti agent, J. A. Ichicawa, who was reported United States intelligence, posing as a rice merchant. According to insurrechad been involved in anti-American Ichicawa previously to overthrow Dartiguetions in the Philippines and might attempt coaling station."" Specunave in Haiti in order to procure a Japanese became more clearly focused lation about enemy intrigues in Haiti into the war against and pertinent after United States entrance Germany. declaration of war the marine commander in After the American to maintain close surveillance over Haiti instructed the Gendarmerie interfere with them unless they all Germans in Haiti but not directly Commander to the United States. Brigade did something prejudicial and March, 1917, that he Cole reported to Washington in February secret instructions and was sure that local Germans were receiving to block us where ever posthat they were "in secret ways trying German raider will land sible," current rumors having it that "a destroy the Amerforces near Leogane, march on Port-au-Prince, Cole's the Germans in control, and then re-embark."s icans, put threat varied from time to time. personal estimation of the German local Germans would cause no In early April, 1917, he wrote that the could do here would trouble because "they realize that what they if mix in the affair not affect the outcome of the war . but they all their property. they are going to stand in a great danger of losing that after Cole wrote this, his intelligence sources reported Shortly bombings, riots, and assassination attempts Germans were plotting American officers." on prominent surveillance of German firms, All the investigations of rumors, work failed to turn censoring of letters, and other counterespionage intrigue." 80 The most substanup much concrete evidence of German resident Germans was a message tive indication of complicity by they realize that what they if mix in the affair not affect the outcome of the war . but they all their property. they are going to stand in a great danger of losing that after Cole wrote this, his intelligence sources reported Shortly bombings, riots, and assassination attempts Germans were plotting American officers." on prominent surveillance of German firms, All the investigations of rumors, work failed to turn censoring of letters, and other counterespionage intrigue." 80 The most substanup much concrete evidence of German resident Germans was a message tive indication of complicity by --- Page 111 --- THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE to the imperial chanfrom the German minister in Port-au-Prince to the State Department cellor that was intercepted and turned over 1917, apparently ambassador at Washington in June, by the British obtained in much the same way as the famous Zimmerhaving been 1917.° The message from the German mann telegram of January, dated March 31, 1917, told of propaminister at Port-au-Prince, local German newspaper, L'Echo, ganda work undertaken by a Haiti and told the which was distributed gratuitously throughout It is doubtful that this propa- "truth" about the German war cause." to much. There is no ganda effort, if it existed at all, amounted the strict Amermention of L'Echo in American reports, and, given and the careful surcensorship of all local newspapers ican press activities, it is not likely that such a paper veillance of German Local Germans were incarcerated for would have gone unnoticed. work, as, for ininnocuous activities than propaganda much more 1918, when two Germans were sentenced stance, the case in January, to leave Haiti in a small boat, with to five years in prison for trying and the eastern United allegedly incriminating maps of England Ocean in their baggage. In States and a small chart of the Atlantic residents resulted in another incident, close surveillance of German the German national that several of them had sung the disclosure of Herr Lucas on Christmas Eve, 1917; Lucas anthem at the home court if the incithreatened with trial before a marine provost was dent was ever repeated." machinations by the German A more dramatic threat than possible German raiders and the of enemy attacks by colony was possibility career officers stationed in Haiti submarines. Most of the marine were frustrated at to take part in the European war and were eager Gendarmerie Commandant Butler, for instance, being stuck in Haiti. in Haiti was "becoming more and wrote in June, 1917, that duty the knowledge that I am not to be more detestable every day and makes it even more unbearable." 38 allowed to fight for my country, to engage the Cerman Under the circumstances any opportunity welcome. The American officer war machine in Haiti was more than 1917, the German diplomatic code and, after February, . The British had broken with copies of certain transatlantic radio messages provided the State Department chancery in Berlin and the various German diplomatic emanating from the imperial Tuchman, The Zimmermann Telegram (New York: posts in Latin America. Barbara published in 1958. Dell Publishing Co., 1965), orlginally and makes it even more unbearable." 38 allowed to fight for my country, to engage the Cerman Under the circumstances any opportunity welcome. The American officer war machine in Haiti was more than 1917, the German diplomatic code and, after February, . The British had broken with copies of certain transatlantic radio messages provided the State Department chancery in Berlin and the various German diplomatic emanating from the imperial Tuchman, The Zimmermann Telegram (New York: posts in Latin America. Barbara published in 1958. Dell Publishing Co., 1965), orlginally --- Page 112 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 in the south of Haiti wrote that "war commanding the Gendarmerie when marines were ordered fever" took hold in Haiti in early 1917, search of enemy submarine to make coastal reconnaissances General in Cole e felt that no German bases." Brigade Commander harbor and raider would risk being bottled up in Port-au-Prince yet of submarine bases was "almost infinitesimal," that the danger in the war against Germany and recomCole was eager to do his part for Haiti. Cole once reported an mended elaborate defense measures Montreal had been sunk in unverified rumor that the French ship convoyed by two fishing Port-au-Prince Bay by a German submarine defense." In fact, the smacks, and requested 5-inch guns for harbor of coffee at Petit Goâve, was Montreal, which had taken on a load Marine defense measures sunk while nearing the coast of France." for resistance by United against German invasion included plans and for the arrest of all local States troops and the Gendarmerie American businessmen were Germans appearing on a blacklist. force. No submarine bases organized and drilled as a civil defense invasions. and there were no German were ever discovered facet of the anti-German campaign in By far the most significant and the internment Haiti was the sequestration of German property the declaration of war German merchants following of leading client-government in July, against Germany by the Dartiguenave Butler had long since urged that 1918. Gendarmerie Commandant scheme to drive the German the State Department "cook up' some the season' for Gerinfluence out of this country, now that 'open control this island." is as after the war we should mans upon us, of war would permit us to take most Butler noted that "A declaration holdings here. 99 87 The step we saw fit towards the German war any refused to declare against Haitian legislature had originally referred to as "a deliberate slap at Germany, in what General Cole the permanent dissoluthe U.S.," but this obstacle was removed by Shortly after the formal tion of the legislature in June, 1917." was sequestered, declaration of war in 1918 all German property and all remaining memtwenty-two leading Germans were interned, and report daily were required to register bers of the German colony at local Gendarmerie offices." the outbreak of the as a colonel, was promoted at e Cole, previously mentioned with Butler, Waller, and other career marines. European war along "a deliberate slap at Germany, in what General Cole the permanent dissoluthe U.S.," but this obstacle was removed by Shortly after the formal tion of the legislature in June, 1917." was sequestered, declaration of war in 1918 all German property and all remaining memtwenty-two leading Germans were interned, and report daily were required to register bers of the German colony at local Gendarmerie offices." the outbreak of the as a colonel, was promoted at e Cole, previously mentioned with Butler, Waller, and other career marines. European war along --- Page 113 --- THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE enterprises had been impinged German property and commercial The American military upon long before outright sequestration. British blacklist of sixteen commander received and enforced a blacklist of twelve Haitian firms in August, 1917, and an American entered the war 1917. Even before America firms in December, German interests from participaGeneral Cole took steps to expunge (HASCO). Under tion in the Haitian-American Sugar Company later shifted its busifrom American authorities, HASCO HASCO pressure German bank to the American bank." ness from a private public utilities at Port-au-Prince. also took over the German-owned commandeered, inThe German ice plant at Port-au-Prince between was the marines and cidentally causing considerable friction of ammonia during the local residents because, despite the shortage officers' families conwar and resulting curtailment of production, civilians went tinued to be supplied while Haitians and American in July, 1918, without. 41 The sequestration of German property by the serious blow to German interests, was ameliorated while a the move, had transferred their fact that some Germans, anticipating property to Haitians to avoid sequestration. Germans lasted from The internment of the twenty-two leading internment camp in PortJuly, 1918, to July, 1919. Conditions at the the were treated comfortable and prisoners au-Prince were generally did not end with the return of peace. humanely, but their ordeal the signing of the GermanoUpon their release in 1919 following complete freetreaty, the prisoners were not given Haitian peace and required to continue dom but were restricted to Port-au-Prince The United States was deterreporting daily to the Gendarmerie. be allowed to regain their former mined that the Germans should not John H. Russell, brigade position in Haitian commerce. Colonel 1918 to 1922 and subsequently commander most of the time from 1919: "The recent war has American high commissioner, remarked in of this class [Germans] for the elimination afforded an opportunity and it is hoped that by this time this from commerce and politics, the Germans were released from has been effected." At the time McCarty Little earnestly internment, Brigade Commander Louis to Germany to Washington that they be repatriated recommended if allowed to remain shortly for fear that "they will undoubtedly position in Haitian commerce. Colonel 1918 to 1922 and subsequently commander most of the time from 1919: "The recent war has American high commissioner, remarked in of this class [Germans] for the elimination afforded an opportunity and it is hoped that by this time this from commerce and politics, the Germans were released from has been effected." At the time McCarty Little earnestly internment, Brigade Commander Louis to Germany to Washington that they be repatriated recommended if allowed to remain shortly for fear that "they will undoubtedly --- Page 114 --- OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED STATES the island to the exclusion of present all the business of this control native enterprise:" 48 of the brigade in late budding who resumed command deported, and Colonel Russell, that the Germans be hastily gov1919, was "most anxious" had been issued by the Dartiguenave 1920, orders Germans." Deported by January, the of ffty leading to return to Haiti ernment for deportation not comto sign agreements brigade Germans were required permission by the marine immigration unless granted specific took steps to restrict new German line mander. Russell also whereby the Dutch steamship to Gerby making an arrangement with Port-au-Prince refused passage consul at Amconnecting Amsterdam visaed by the Haitian from mans, regardless of passports had first been obtained well sterdam, unless special permission Russell stated that "Haiti now that Russell. In December, 1920, and I am strongly of the opinion s> 45 The cleared of them (Germans] to return except in special cases." that perthey should not be allowed in this policy, with the proviso immiState Department colluded be denied to "bona fide German the mission to enter Haiti not will contribute to the prosperity of who settling in Haiti 46 Russell made the subsegrants and commercial development "bona fide" and which were Republic decisions on which Germans were never did regain a promiquent interests; Germans dangerous to American commerce and politics. position nent place in Haitian created their strong commercial the Germans had originally women and thus circumventing Haitian The Americans, in Haiti by marrying prohibition of alien landownership. the way for Amerlong-standing device, sought to open clause rejecting this circuitous by striking the alien landholding break with past ican economic penetration Constitution. This involved a major the from the Haitian encroachments and preserve of Haiti's Haitian efforts to prevent outside foreign exploitation. Every one had national patrimony from the time of the American intervention constitutions up to official, writing sixteen A State Department of foreign landprohibited alien landownership. American legalization summarized the in 1927, ownership as follows: beneficial to Haiti and was to be come It was obvious that if our occupation that foreign capital should further her progress it was necessary past ican economic penetration Constitution. This involved a major the from the Haitian encroachments and preserve of Haiti's Haitian efforts to prevent outside foreign exploitation. Every one had national patrimony from the time of the American intervention constitutions up to official, writing sixteen A State Department of foreign landprohibited alien landownership. American legalization summarized the in 1927, ownership as follows: beneficial to Haiti and was to be come It was obvious that if our occupation that foreign capital should further her progress it was necessary --- Page 115 --- THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE new industries and stimulate agricultural to Haiti, in order to establish Americans could hardly be expected to put production in that country. enterprises in Haiti if their money into plantations and big agricultural which their money was to they could not themselves own the land on Government caused the probe spent. For this reason the United States to be omitted from the ownership of land by foreigners vision prohibiting The United States did use the new [1918] Constitution of Haiti. . Constitution adopted by the rather high handed methods to get the people of Haiti."? the "most important change" In drafting the new Constitution, submitted by the made by the State Department in the proposals officials in Haiti was and the American Haitian client-government for alien landthe striking of a five-year residence unfair requirement advantage to the Gerownership which "would have given who would have been the only ones mans who were approximately, D 48 resident in Haiti for five years. of both chambers of the In 1917 a National Assembly, consisting consider the adoption of the Haitian legislature, was convened to to the Constitution constitution. According new Americansponsored the National Assembly could alter a of 1889, then in effect, only The Haitian legislature, constitution or replace it with a new one. demonclient-government, had repeatedly unlike the Dartiguenave by protesting against strated its political vitality and independence The 1917 National Assembly and frustrating American designs. constitution. Instead, the refused to pass the American-sponsored constitution of its own, and Assembly drafted a new anti-American were dramatin the of passing this when proceedings was process Smedley Butler, who read a dissolution ically interrupted by Major Butler observed privately decree signed by President Dartiguenave. that the Gendarmerie that the Assembly had become "so impudent effected genuinely had to dissolve them, which dissolution was by did methods." The obstreperous Haitian legislature Marine Corps until after the strikes and riots of 1929. not sit again the same letter that he would later give his correspondent, dise Butler added in A. Mcllhenny, a "mouth to ear account of this future Financial Adviser John for fear the Department of State might get hold of solution, am afraid to write it, censors." 99 Butler to McIlhenny, June 23, 1917; The this letter by means of the MARCORPS MUS. Smedley Darlington Butler Papers, ." The obstreperous Haitian legislature Marine Corps until after the strikes and riots of 1929. not sit again the same letter that he would later give his correspondent, dise Butler added in A. Mcllhenny, a "mouth to ear account of this future Financial Adviser John for fear the Department of State might get hold of solution, am afraid to write it, censors." 99 Butler to McIlhenny, June 23, 1917; The this letter by means of the MARCORPS MUS. Smedley Darlington Butler Papers, --- Page 116 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED achieved by the The dissolution of the legislature was nominally who client-President Dartiguenave, but Dartiguenave, action of become recalcitrant by this time, had been was himself beginning to American authorities had browbeaten by Butler." In any case, if did not to dissolve the Assembly by force Dartiguenave agreed minister reported to Lansing: cooperate. The American and opposed to the best the Assembly was in every way reactionary article permitting foreign ownerinterests of Haiti, refusing to adopt any and when matters in the Assemship of land in any manner whatsoever, decided in a conference held at bly had proceeded thus far . . it was from passing such the Assembly the legation on June 18 . . . to prevent if occasion demanded it, prefera Constitution by causing its dissolution, if by order of the Comably by a Presidential Decree, but necessary mander of the Occupation." of Wilson's high regard for A few days later Lansing, perhaps wary the that "You will constitutional procedure, wrote president correct Government is wholly responsible for the observe that the Haitian think that it is of the National Assembly. . e . I recent dissolving of Haiti to work out this problem which wise to allow the President in the island." 61 Scruples about is largely due to German residents disregarded in the subconstitutional procedures were completely promulgation of the new Constitution. sequent was left with little room for political President Dartiguenave dissolution of the National Assembly, which maneuvering after the resistance to the Americans and had had served as a bulwark of position. General Cole allowed Dartiguenave to attempt a middle the dissolution of the reported: "There is no question but what over the PresiNational Assembly has given us an absolute power whatever we demand dent and has put us in such a position that completely." 62 him-this he has promised will have to be executed by to his earlier attitude of complete Dartiguenave quickly reverted that the American-sponsored cooperation and himself suggested According to a later State constitution be adopted by a plebiscite. States would have "greatly Department memorandum, the United the new constitution preferred" having the National Assembly certain pass that new elections Haitian law, but it was as required by hostile assembly, sO the department authorwould result in another that "The people casting ized the extralegal plebiscite, realizing him-this he has promised will have to be executed by to his earlier attitude of complete Dartiguenave quickly reverted that the American-sponsored cooperation and himself suggested According to a later State constitution be adopted by a plebiscite. States would have "greatly Department memorandum, the United the new constitution preferred" having the National Assembly certain pass that new elections Haitian law, but it was as required by hostile assembly, sO the department authorwould result in another that "The people casting ized the extralegal plebiscite, realizing --- Page 117 --- THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE ignorant in most cases of what they ballots would be 97% illiterate, for." 58 were voting constitution was held in June, 1918, and The plebiscite on the new of 98,225 in favor as against it passed by the overwhelming majority by the GenThe plebiscite was closely supervised the 768 opposed." and distributed the ballots. Prior to darmerie, which ran the polls issued instructions election the commandant of the Gendarmerie of meetings, paid for out Gendarmerie that barbecues and popular for the constitution, and that the funds, be held to drum up support be for the of forced-labor road building suspended American system Gendarmerie officers were also week preceding the election. District who publicly of the constitution ordered to arrest any opponents lopsided results their views. 55 Because of the suspiciously no expressed in which 67 out of 96 polling places reported of the plebiscite, commander felt compelled to write negative votes at all, the marine while there was e He explained that, a special report to Washington. the impressive victory enthusiasm for the new constitution, no great did not vote rather than by was caused by the fact that opponents from conteminterference in the election." In fact, judging marine less than 5 percent of the population porary population estimates, Years later Josephus Daniels wrote his participated in the plebiscite. then President Franklin D. former Assistant Secretary of the Navy, of that Constitution of Roosevelt, that "I never did wholly approve in the light of had a hand in framing. . . I expect, Haiti you the necessity of denying even a semexperience, we both regret control of Haiti." 67 blance of self-determination in our the desired provision Constitution contained, of course, The new Other features were foreigners the right to own property. granting of State, appointed by the client-president, the creation of a Council until the elected legislature was to perform all legislative functions devoid of favoritism. Smedley Butler 0 Marine-controlled elections were not always as follows: "The opposition described a marine-sponsored election in it Nicaragua became necessary to elect our man to candidates were declared bandits when liked the fellow; : . the office. Our candidates always win. In one found election who nobody would vote for the proper candidistrict was canvassed, and 400 were was given five minutes beforehand, the 400 date. Notice of the opening of the polls when had voted, in about two hours, the voters were assembled in a line and "The they Hate of Haiti," Literary Digest, CIII, polls were closed." Butler quoted in New York Herald Tribune, Dec. 7, 1929, p. 11, No. 12 (Dec. 21, 1929), 6-7. Also made by Butler in a speech in Pittsburgh on Dec. 5, referring to the above statement 1929. , and 400 were was given five minutes beforehand, the 400 date. Notice of the opening of the polls when had voted, in about two hours, the voters were assembled in a line and "The they Hate of Haiti," Literary Digest, CIII, polls were closed." Butler quoted in New York Herald Tribune, Dec. 7, 1929, p. 11, No. 12 (Dec. 21, 1929), 6-7. Also made by Butler in a speech in Pittsburgh on Dec. 5, referring to the above statement 1929. --- Page 118 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 reconstituted. Legislative elections would be numbered year" to be determined held in "an evenability of by the president. The irremovjudges was suspended for a six-month period promulgation of the Constitution. In a following the United States military Special Article, all acts of Constitution of 1918 served occupation were validated." In sum, the tional position of both the to consolidate the legal and constituIt also presumably laid Occupation and the the bases from which client-goverment. forth proceed along the enlightened Haiti would hencetionalism. paths of Wilsonian constituWhile the political marines machinery was thus being strengthened, the of the Gendarmerie simultaneously were enhancing the military and the marine effectiveness sive road-building program. At the brigade by means of an extention the only roads time of the American intervenroads, which had fallen connecting major towns were the old French modern vehicles. The into disrepair and were impassable to "This condition, commandant of the Gendarmerie noted that the attention principally from a military of American Marine officers viewpoint, early drew were hindered and sometimes defeated whose military movements Lacking adequate funds for by the deplorable roads." 99 59 cause of the fiscal a major road-building program bepauperage of the cans revived an 1864 Haitian law, client-government, the Ameriwhich peasants were discovered by Smedley Butler, by lieu of required to perform labor on local paying a road tax. This system, roads in historical roots in the unpaid labor known as the corvée, had its their feudal lords and was which French peasants owed by the British strikingly similar to the corvée employed and 1890s. In Haiti occupation the to dredge canals in Egypt in the 1880s impressive network of roads corvée resulted in the construction of an est achievement connecting major towns, with the being a 170-mile unpaved greatau-Prince and the northern center of highway between Porthowever, resented the forced Cap Haitien. The peasants, soon developed into a full-scale labor, and resistance to the corvée Washington, Butler, who revolt. In response to praise from ant Secretary of the masterminded the system, wrote to AssistNavy Roosevelt that "It would many questions as to how we not do to ask too The corvée accomplish this work. P 60 was inherently offensive to Haitian peasants, who -mile unpaved greatau-Prince and the northern center of highway between Porthowever, resented the forced Cap Haitien. The peasants, soon developed into a full-scale labor, and resistance to the corvée Washington, Butler, who revolt. In response to praise from ant Secretary of the masterminded the system, wrote to AssistNavy Roosevelt that "It would many questions as to how we not do to ask too The corvée accomplish this work. P 60 was inherently offensive to Haitian peasants, who --- Page 119 --- THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE small landholders and feared the prized their independence hands as of white men. As the system became return of slavery at the In 1920 resistance increased proportionally. ridden with abuses, of Santo Domingo and Admiral H. S. Knapp, the military governor to Secretary of the commander in Haiti, reported the administrative to be undeniable" that Haitians had Navy Daniels that "it appears their home districts, had been kept been forced to work outside of marched to and from their at work under guard, and had "been kept under bound The corvée gangs were always work together."a practiced brutality on Gendarmerie guard, and native gendarmes upset62 The roping together of workers was especially their charges." since it recalled legends of French colonial ting to the peasants, slave gangs. the corvée was officially abolished in Because of rising hostility, August proclamation inAugust, 1918. The brigade commander's formed the citizens: to a stop to further bloodshed. . . . The Corvee The time has come put Work on the road is entirely voluntary has been done away with entirely. workmen will be free to come and go and will be paid for daily. The committed by native or Ameriwhen it pleases them. . Any injustices Officials and justice should be reported to American Military can officials will be done and the offender punished." commander, Colonel Russell, decided on The succeeding brigade the corvée had been a "source of continual his arrival that, while it, this would not be trouble" and it was desirable to discontinue had been feasible until "certain roads, needed for military purposes, the corvée was >64 A second and final order abolishing opened up. issued in October, 1918. the corvée was continued illegally in Despite official termination, of Haiti by district marine comthe northern and central regions who denied continuation of the mander Major Clarke H. Wells, This mountainous region had corvée in his reports to headquarters." and was the area where been the traditional center of caco activity to military construction was most difficult and most important road became the center of the 1918-19 caco uprising and accessibility. It atrocities were committed. In the region in which most confirmed General Albertus W. Catlin, early 1919, a new brigade commander, illegally in Despite official termination, of Haiti by district marine comthe northern and central regions who denied continuation of the mander Major Clarke H. Wells, This mountainous region had corvée in his reports to headquarters." and was the area where been the traditional center of caco activity to military construction was most difficult and most important road became the center of the 1918-19 caco uprising and accessibility. It atrocities were committed. In the region in which most confirmed General Albertus W. Catlin, early 1919, a new brigade commander, --- Page 120 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 personally investigated rumors of central Haiti, found the corvée still in Gendarmerie malevolence in depopulated, and ordered all existence and the countryside area to cease because of patrolling 66 by gendarmes in the Hinche Hooker, brutality. Lieutenant Colonel Richard C. conducting a special investigation ordered ported that the corvée was responsible for by Catlin, reinterior and that "indiscriminate a "reign of terror" in the had caused the local strong-arm work being pulled off" Gendarmerie. peasants to hide out in the hills for fear of Hooker noted that he "got the the officers higher up were approving these impression that the situation in that whole district methods," and that "The After his investigation is, to say the least, out of hand." 67 commander General Catlin relieved the and caused the commandant of the district marine a general order forbidding the Gendarmerie to issue why the order killing of Haitian was issued, the Gendarmerie prisoners. Asked stated, "it is a strong tradition in the commandant later offense is followed by the issuance of military service that every else to do the same thing. >> 68 an order forbidding every one The corvée and associated brutality against the Occupation. At instigated a massive one point the formidable uprising Charlemagne Peralte caco leader north and vowed to drive organized the a provisional government in the thousand troops. Brigade Americans into the sea with his several had 2,000 "bandits" under Commander Russell estimated that Peralte Peralte earlier claimed his command in the fall of 1919, while Whatever the actual to have had 30,000 to 40,000 followers. 69 number of intense guerrilla warfare in Haiti, combatants, with 1919 was a year of tics listing 1,861 Haitians killed in official Marine Corps statisfor the first five years of the that year out of a total of 2,250 Peralte's force occupation. 70 Colonel Russell as armed mostly with machetes, described pistols, and 200 or 300 rifles, and noted knives, pikes, a few of ammunition, using "our that they were very short piece of goatskin on a string ammunition around and the Krag by tying a Charlemagne himself the base of the cartridge. 99 71 was eventually killed guised as blacks who sneaked into his by two marines, disIn an attempt to demoralize the camp at night and shot him. photographs of Charlemagne's guerrillas, the marines disseminated ping him up SO that he looked body, like but made the mistake of propChrist on the cross. The photo- pikes, a few of ammunition, using "our that they were very short piece of goatskin on a string ammunition around and the Krag by tying a Charlemagne himself the base of the cartridge. 99 71 was eventually killed guised as blacks who sneaked into his by two marines, disIn an attempt to demoralize the camp at night and shot him. photographs of Charlemagne's guerrillas, the marines disseminated ping him up SO that he looked body, like but made the mistake of propChrist on the cross. The photo- --- Page 121 --- THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE source of inspiration to Haitian nagraph became a continuing insurrection declined after tionalists. Nevertheless, the 1919 shattered in an unsuccessCharlemagne's death and was ultimately ful direct attack on Port-au-Prince. and unsophisticated in the The cacos though poorly equipped than a match for the techniques of modern warfare, were more Frederick M. Wise, who infant Gendarmerie. Lieutenant Colonel 1919, found the force took command of the Gendarmerie in July, and later with low morale and inferior equipment, in bad shape, had discouraged target recalled: "I discovered that my predecessors to teach the native how practice on the theory that it was dangerous us!" 72 to shoot. Some day they might possibly turn back against to the period when This failure to train the gendarmes dated Waller, who once rethe marines were commanded by Colonel with a gun. " 73 The quesmarked that "you can never trust a nigger their Haitian subordinates tion of how far Americans could trust and necessarily SO remained a problem at all levels of the occupation, force. was ultimately based on since the relationship of the Gendarmerie, the marine brigade Given the unreliability revolt and, in early 1919, itself was called upon to put down the caco marked superiority reinforcements. The marines enjoyed aerial required and training. They even had supover the cacos in weaponry for the first recorded instance port, with the cacos serving as targets 1919. Cacos would be air-ground combat, in March, of coordinated in the bush and then have bombs dropped surrounded by marines and abandon their protective in their midst, causing them to panic the General cover. 74 At the 1921 Senate Hearings on Occupation, Corps from 1914 to George Barnett, commandant of the Marine contrast in Haitian as 1920, was asked to comment on the the striking first five years of the occuopposed to marine casualties during Barnett, 2,250 Haitians were According to a report made by pation. o The general replied: killed as against 14 or 16 marines. Daniels that 3,250 Haitians had been e Earlier, Barnett had reported Barnett to Secretary stated that the true figure was 2,250, and killed. At the Senate Hearings, had been caused by an error in addition. Marine Corps that the 1,000 mistake that the original 3,250 figure was correct. Month-by-month casualty Haitians records indicate from March, 1919, to November, 1920, total 3,071 Barreports for the period Daniels, Sept. 18, 1920; NA, RG80, File No. 26283-3725:9. killed. Barnett to 1922, 433-34. "Election and Bandit Data" file, nett testimony; Senate Hearings, Box 30. MARCORPS HQ Haiti MSS, addition. Marine Corps that the 1,000 mistake that the original 3,250 figure was correct. Month-by-month casualty Haitians records indicate from March, 1919, to November, 1920, total 3,071 Barreports for the period Daniels, Sept. 18, 1920; NA, RG80, File No. 26283-3725:9. killed. Barnett to 1922, 433-34. "Election and Bandit Data" file, nett testimony; Senate Hearings, Box 30. MARCORPS HQ Haiti MSS, --- Page 122 --- 1915-1934 OCCUPATION OF HAITI, UNITED STATES many There were a great like it was in the Philippines. today and so-called Cacos It was largely there who would be friends to distinguish one from natives down uniform, and it was hard but they tomorrow. They had no not well armed. They were brave, with machine the other, and they were well-armed troops, especially would be would have no show against natural to suppose that the contrast killed in compariguns, and it is perfectly great number should be marked and that a very very of white people killed." son with the number the statistics in Haiti were extraordinary; been 25 to 1.70 Even so, the casualty Philippine insurrection had this, kill ratio during the advantages enjoyed by the marines, and degrading Despite the overwhelming wars, was a frustrating like most repressive guerrilla pursuing forces. the for the superior, frustrations encountered by experience the difficulties and the almost unbearable living Considering down elusive cacos, against marines in hunting and American racial prejudices the conditions in the brush, inevitable that the marines allowed s 77 it was almost and that a number of atrocities "gooks," civilized warfare to lapse Hearings are rules of The records of the 1921 Senate of the evidence was were committed. atrocity stories, but much proved." replete with detailed could be legally with and relatively few allegations deal mainly hearsay Marine Corps records and investigations which was apparently Relevant killing of prisoners, Gendarmerie the problem of illegal Haiti in 1919. One American estiwidespread in northern detail of 3,000 Haitians, who had commanded a corvée that there were at least officer, reports and rumors an investimated from aggregate and Major T. C. Turner concluded 400 illegal executions, in 1919 by stating: gation undertaken part of this year stationed in Haiti during the early that both marines and Almost everyone knowledge of the fact to any witnesses seemed to have some prisoners. It was very difficult get they were all gendarmes were killing in the opinion of the undersigned, to testify directly as, equally culpable." in the GendarClarke H. Wells, a colonel in late 1918 and Turner felt that Major the District of the North had merie who commanded for the killings and that subordinates early 1919, was responsible by stating: gation undertaken part of this year stationed in Haiti during the early that both marines and Almost everyone knowledge of the fact to any witnesses seemed to have some prisoners. It was very difficult get they were all gendarmes were killing in the opinion of the undersigned, to testify directly as, equally culpable." in the GendarClarke H. Wells, a colonel in late 1918 and Turner felt that Major the District of the North had merie who commanded for the killings and that subordinates early 1919, was responsible --- Page 123 --- THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE his orders. Marine Corps Commandant John A. simply obeyed Daniels in 1920 that there was specific evidence Lejeune reported to continuance of the corvée that Wells had knowledge of the illegal to "bump that he had given orders to his subordinates in his district, kill all cacos rather than bring and to suspected off" caco prisoners had ordered his juniors to suppress reports them in, and that Wells district. General Lejeune recomof unfavorable conditions in the court-martial, but marine mended that Wells be tried by general build a concrete case, investigations had been undertaken too late to of evicourt-martial charges were withdrawn for insufficiency and noted that there was evidence that Lieutenant dence. Lejeune also commandant of the Gendarmerie, Colonel Alexander S. Williams, of but, again, there was also had knowledge of the killing prisoners insufficient evidence for a court-martial." of brutality can be gained A good indication of the actual extent order issued to the between the lines of a confidential by reading Commander in October, 1919: marines in Haiti by the Brigade commander has had brought to his attention an alleged the 1. The brigade in Haiti to the effect that in charge against marines and gendarmes bandits have been summarily shot without past prisoners and wounded in the field have declared and carried on trial. Furthermore, that troops season, " where care is not taken to what is commonly known as "open are bandits or "good determine whether or not the natives encountered burned merely because citizens" and where houses have been ruthlessly otherwise destroyed. they were unoccupied and native property man of the Marine 2. Such action on the part of any officer or enlisted smirch upon the belief; and if true, would be a terrible Corps is beyond record of the corps, which we all hold SO dear." unblemished to all marines in Haiti, with the This order was promulgated would be read to each new marine as he additional proviso that it order and the explicit references to arrived. The severe tone of the that the problems discussed various types of misdeeds are evidence were real and widespread. noted that "There were unquestionably Secretary Daniels later and some of the marines which some things done by the gendarmerie could have been more distressed deserved punishment and nobody Corps is beyond record of the corps, which we all hold SO dear." unblemished to all marines in Haiti, with the This order was promulgated would be read to each new marine as he additional proviso that it order and the explicit references to arrived. The severe tone of the that the problems discussed various types of misdeeds are evidence were real and widespread. noted that "There were unquestionably Secretary Daniels later and some of the marines which some things done by the gendarmerie could have been more distressed deserved punishment and nobody --- Page 124 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 than President Wilson and myself."s2 Efforts prosecute offenders were, however, foiled. to investigate and records related to the Certain Gendarmerie appeared. 88 Daniels' order investigation for of atrocities mysteriously diswas subverted by the assistant a full investigation in August, 1920, with the approval of adjutant general of the Marine Corps Daniels Major General Commandant remarked that this "stunned" him and George Barnett; Barnett on the carpet, 84 Civilian control caused him to call Navy Department was over the marines within the tion muddled eroding as the lame-duck Wilson administraCommandant through its last months in power. In November, John A. Lejeune informed Daniels that 1920, completed investigation by Brigade a report of a March, 1920, "was never received, Commander Russell, dated a fact which was not discovered being apparently lost in the mail," patched a court of inquiry, headed until September. 85 Daniels disHenry T. Mayo, to Haiti in the fall by of Caribbean veteran Admiral sulted in the disclosure of 1920. This investigation reall of which, by only a small number of isolated atrocities, by previous suspicious coincidence, had already been general courts-martial." While the prosecuted Haiti, it conspicuously neglected to call Mayo court was in dant of the Gendarmerie, as a witness the commanwho was familiar with Lieutenant Colonel Frederick M. Wise, and had let it be known "rough stuff" that had gone on in the interior oath I was that "If they put me on the stand going to tell the truth." 87 under Despite efforts to minimize the atrocities and aspects of the occupation became killings, the brutal United States with the a major national issue in the presidential campaign, of inadvertent a 1919 letter publication, during the 1920 mandant Barnett had ordered in which Marine Corps Com- "indiscriminate the commander in Haiti to killing of natives." 2 88 In this stop the Colonel Russell that "The court-martial letter Barnett wrote of a native prisoner of one private for the showed brought out a statement his killing me that practically by counsel which gone on for some time.' s> 89 This indiscriminate letter killing of natives has cratic vice-presidential candidate and earlier assertions by Demohad a hand in Franklin D. Roosevelt that he had the 1918 Constitution running several Caribbean republics and had of Haiti were exploited by written Republican candi- 88 In this stop the Colonel Russell that "The court-martial letter Barnett wrote of a native prisoner of one private for the showed brought out a statement his killing me that practically by counsel which gone on for some time.' s> 89 This indiscriminate letter killing of natives has cratic vice-presidential candidate and earlier assertions by Demohad a hand in Franklin D. Roosevelt that he had the 1918 Constitution running several Caribbean republics and had of Haiti were exploited by written Republican candi- --- Page 125 --- THE MARINES TAKE CHARGE date Warren Harding, who used the episodes to denounce the Wilson administration. The publicity engendered by the 1920 presidential campaign resulted in a series of journalistic exposés and a reassessment of the Occupation, culminating in the 1921 Senate Inquiry and the subsequent reorganization of the Occupation by the Republicans. --- Page 126 --- Reorganization and Rationalization Under the Wilson European war, the administration, which was preoccupied with the tion from Washington. occupation of Haiti received little positive direcsituation during the The only high-level appraisal of the Haitian Secretary of the war years was a 1917 visit to Haiti by Assistant Navy Franklin D. more than give an unqualified Roosevelt. Roosevelt did little engage in ceremonial endorsement to marine activities, functions, and vestment in Haiti for his own personal investigate possibilities of inpolicy enrichment. Major Constitution developments were limited to the passing of the American of 1918 and to a twenty-year new Haitian treaty; both these moves were extension of the 1915 in the legal sense and to designed to legitimize the With the end of open the way for American occupation the investments. no longer necessary to European war, the military occupation was safeguard American over, Wilson was faced with the strategic interests; morein his championing the of embarrassing contradiction implicit Peace Conference while rights small nations at the 1919 Versailles over Haiti. Wilson tried simultaneously to withdraw maintaining military control in 1919, but found that this American troops from Haiti were tied down was impossible because the American by a major guerrilla war. Instead of marines military commitment, the Wilson reducing obliged to reinforce the marines in Haiti, administration was acknowledge the need for the military occupation was safeguard American over, Wilson was faced with the strategic interests; morein his championing the of embarrassing contradiction implicit Peace Conference while rights small nations at the 1919 Versailles over Haiti. Wilson tried simultaneously to withdraw maintaining military control in 1919, but found that this American troops from Haiti were tied down was impossible because the American by a major guerrilla war. Instead of marines military commitment, the Wilson reducing obliged to reinforce the marines in Haiti, administration was acknowledge the need for --- Page 127 --- REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION and come to terms with the administrative a prolonged occupation, characterized the occupation from the outset. confusion that had were dropped when the Possible efforts to reorganize the occupation the 1920 presidenHaitian situation became a political issue during silenced internal crititial election campaign, a development which of generated within the administration. As a result publicity cism the United States Senate sent a during the election campaign, in 1921. This Senate special committee to investigate the occupation the occurecommended that the United States reorganize Inquiry to eliminate confusion and inefficiency. pation of 1921-22 featured centralization The sequent reorganization in the person of an all-powerful and consolidation of authority Haitian finances American high commissioner. In related moves, Nationale to the by the transfer of the Banque were reorganized City Bank and by a 1922 loan which exclusive control of National France in the hands of Amerconsolidated Haiti's external debt to the Occupaican creditors. Following the 1921-22 reorganization, institution capable of tion emerged as a static, internally disciplined developefficiently sitting on Haiti. There were few spectacular strikes and riots of in American policy until the ments or changes 1929. administration had neglected Haiti during the That the Wilson intervention in 1915 is immediately following the American to the years given the more pressing problems attendant not surprising, received scant in 1 For the same reason the occupation war Europe. the fact that the notice in the United States, as indicated by no public Index for the years 1917 and 1918 contains New York Times discussions on the direction and purentries for Haiti. High-level and the marines in Haiti were left pose of the occupation were rare, lack of from Washington largely to their own devices. This guidance who usually resented reached the stage where the marines in Haiti, complained that they were being iginterference from civilians, Commander Eli K. Cole wrote nored. In December, 1917, Brigade unfortunate, from my point to his immediate superior that "It is very as to the policy that of view, that I have absolutely no knowledge to Haiti." 2 Cole's supeGovernment desires to follow in regard our reporting to the Navy Department rior endorsed the complaint by lack of from Washington largely to their own devices. This guidance who usually resented reached the stage where the marines in Haiti, complained that they were being iginterference from civilians, Commander Eli K. Cole wrote nored. In December, 1917, Brigade unfortunate, from my point to his immediate superior that "It is very as to the policy that of view, that I have absolutely no knowledge to Haiti." 2 Cole's supeGovernment desires to follow in regard our reporting to the Navy Department rior endorsed the complaint by --- Page 128 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED felt by General Cole." The departthat he shared "the uncertainty from subordinate officers by ment responded to these criticisms blasting them for "the weakly trying to shift the blame on them, conditions of, and at intervals the lack of reports, regarding Washscarcity them to be more diligent in keeping in Haiti," and ordering direction from Washington remained ington informed.* Positive minimal until the end of the war. D. Roosevelt's January, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin Roosevelt's visit, in style and 1917, visit did not alter this situation." when the occupation substance, was characteristic of the early years Daniels later wrote enclave. Secretary of the Navy was a military of inspection (it was one of pleasant advenRoosevelt that "Your trip actual to the President and the Navy Department ture too) gave 6 In fact, Roosevelt's endorsement of knowledge of the situation." that the Haitian elient-government the marines and recommendation with in favor of unimcivilian officials be dispensed and American little more than a reiteration of peded military government were had been saying all along.' what the marine commanders to official cereRoosevelt's main efforts in Haiti were devoted honored which client-President Dartiguenave was monies, during United States Caribbean Fleet, by a naval salute from the assembled investment in Haiti. and to the exploration of prospects for personal impression on the Haitian The official ceremonies made a favorable observance of protocol, elite largely because of Roosevelt's careful of French in reading his disregard of the color line, and his use effort to extend formal Roosevelt made an especial formal speeches. Dartiguenave, as when he stepped courtesies to client-President after Gendaraside and insisted that Dartiguenave take precedence the president by Commandant Smedley Butler had grabbed of merie him from entering a limousine ahead the collar and prevented of protocol by Roosevelt and Roosevelt. e The elaborate observance corresponding private sentihis party was not always backed by diary that his friend and ments. Roosevelt recorded in his travel of New Orleans, who later traveling companion, John A. McIlhenny to of the Gendarmerie was nominally subordinate - Butler, who as commandant in the observance of protocol; while President Dartiguenave, was not Butler SO serupulous slept in a bed while the president slept on Also the traveling with Dartiguenave, first use of their common bath water. Freidel, p. 279. floor, and Butler enjoyed XXXIV, No. 1, 37. Thomas, Old Gimlet Eye, pp. 355-560. Marvin, World's Work, traveling companion, John A. McIlhenny to of the Gendarmerie was nominally subordinate - Butler, who as commandant in the observance of protocol; while President Dartiguenave, was not Butler SO serupulous slept in a bed while the president slept on Also the traveling with Dartiguenave, first use of their common bath water. Freidel, p. 279. floor, and Butler enjoyed XXXIV, No. 1, 37. Thomas, Old Gimlet Eye, pp. 355-560. Marvin, World's Work, --- Page 129 --- REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION American civilian official, had been became the occupation' S leading in honor of Dartiguenave unable to eat much at a luncheon given Haitian minister of agriculthe robust because he was fascinated by told Roosevelt, "I him. Mcllhenny ture who was sitting opposite that that man would have brought couldn't help saying to myself in 1860 for stud purposes. $1,500 at auction in New Orleans and retold it to AmerRoosevelt appears to have relished the story, Armour when he visited Haiti as President ican Minister Norman in 1934. Secretary of the Navy Roosevelt took the While in Haiti, Assistant investment scheme whereby he opportunity to pursue a private In making investigations hoped to set up an agricultural plantation. development, Roosevelt was about possible sites for agricultural Constitution of anticipating the passage of the American-sponsored clause designed 1918, which contained the foreign landownership Indeed, Roosevelt later to encourage an influx of American capital. which was in the claimed to have himself written this constitution, Haiti. o Roosevelt was of being drafted at the time he visited and by process in his Haitian investment project by McIlhenny assisted Major Henry L. (Harry) Roosevelt, who Roosevelt's distant cousin d'Haîti and who was was serving as an officer in the Gendarmerie of the navy years later when himself to become an assistant secretary the Franklin Roosevelt party Franklin was president.f Shortly after his cousin that Major Harry Roosevelt wrote requesting left Haiti, of boats for the Haitian Coast Guard be an anticipated shipment our Coast Guard it will expedited because, "If you can hurry up Gonave until these vessels help as I cannot very well get over to Roosevelt proceeded arrive. I still have faith in that Island."* Major on the islands agricultural and commercial possibilities to investigate and Ile à Vache, and reported his findings of La Gonave, La Tortue, Harry also advised to his cousin Franklin and to Mellhenny." of the AmerFranklin that "if [Willard] Straight could open a branch did not have much to do with drawing up the Cone In fact, Roosevelt probably the work of the Office of the Solicitor in the stitution. The Constitution was chiefly 1920, p. 15. Freidel, p. 284. SD 838.011/-- State Department. NYT, Aug. 19, series, 1917. secretaries of the navy from Theodore t Four Roosevelts served as assistant World War I, Theodore Roosevelt, Jr., during Roosevelt in 1897 to Franklin and during finally Harry Roosevelt in the 1930's. the Harding administration, did not have much to do with drawing up the Cone In fact, Roosevelt probably the work of the Office of the Solicitor in the stitution. The Constitution was chiefly 1920, p. 15. Freidel, p. 284. SD 838.011/-- State Department. NYT, Aug. 19, series, 1917. secretaries of the navy from Theodore t Four Roosevelts served as assistant World War I, Theodore Roosevelt, Jr., during Roosevelt in 1897 to Franklin and during finally Harry Roosevelt in the 1930's. the Harding administration, --- Page 130 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 down here I think they could grab a ican International Corporation 9? 11 The American entrance into World lot of good paying properties. for investment, but Harry wrote to War I interrupted the plans business is over we can talk of Franklin that "After all this war field for investGonave which I still believe will offer a splendid ment." >12 out of the picture after the war, but Harry Roosevelt dropped who was by then the American Franklin and John A. McIlhenny, their interest in Haitian investfinancial adviser to Haiti, maintained Louis Howe wrote In 1919 Roosevelt's secretary ment possibilities. admirers had money to invest and Roosevelt that one of his wealthy idea than a cat as to how to go about that the admirer "has no more Haiti project, this looks like are still fond of your it. . . . If you in consultation >> 18 In 1922 Roosevelt and McIlhenny, a easy money. made specific plans for the founding of with Roger L. Farnham, capital of $500,000, but the venture trading company with a paid-in apparently felt that he could not was delayed because McIlhenny deal while he was still employed as enter in a concrete business Roosevelt had great financial adviser to the Haitian government:" defended his plans for a general hopes for the Haitian venture and trading company by saying: that just because the Haytian native population I cannot agree . etc. that they never will use them. As a does not use knives, forks, cups, that during the next generation the matter of fact I feel convinced standards more generally in Haytian population will adopt the living vogue. wrote Roosevelt that "It is my intention to In July, 1922 Mcllhenny the contract of the loan is resign as Financial Adviser as soon available as to assist you in any way signed, and I will therefore be to until desire," >> but McIlhenny was unable resign that you may and the plan was never consummated." October, 1922, and Mcllhenny had in private investThe interest that Roosevelt reflected in the two most significant ment in Haiti was concurrently administration's Haitian policy during developments in the Wilson investment required guarantees the war years. Promotion of private stability, plus the legal right to of security and continuing political neglected to exercise close While the administration own property. available as to assist you in any way signed, and I will therefore be to until desire," >> but McIlhenny was unable resign that you may and the plan was never consummated." October, 1922, and Mcllhenny had in private investThe interest that Roosevelt reflected in the two most significant ment in Haiti was concurrently administration's Haitian policy during developments in the Wilson investment required guarantees the war years. Promotion of private stability, plus the legal right to of security and continuing political neglected to exercise close While the administration own property. --- Page 131 --- REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION the marines in Haiti, the State Department, with supervision over went to considerable trouMcIlhenny as one of its principal agents, Constitution of 1918 and to ble to pass the American-sponsored of the Haitian-American treaty of procure a twenty-year extension 1915. featured an alien landownership Just as the 1918 Constitution the for an influx of American clause that was designed to open way intended to create condicapital, the treaty extension was likewise investment and to lay the tions attractive to American capital external debt. In December, groundwork for refunding the Haitian financial adviser that it was 1916, Lansing instructed the American for extension that had to exercise immediately the option necessary 1915 treaty in order that American been included in the original Client-President Darticapital might be induced to invest in Haiti." leverage by procrastitried to obtain a degree of political by guenave extension but gave in when threatened nating on the proposed that "if one government General Cole, who reported to Washington another Government that does not accede to the proposition, then extension, signed in March, will can be installed." The twenty-year of providing con1917, was executed for the immediate purpose for the successful tinuity of American control deemed necessary external debt to France flotation of a new loan by which the Haitian The extension of Ameriwould be consolidated in American hands. of the Haitian debt by can control until 1936 and consolidation the commercial implications, as indicated by Americans also had in Haiti were opposed to the extenfact that local French interests creditors, fearing that sion and the transfer of the loans to American to the wall." French commercial interests would be pushed loan, along with The treaty extension and prospective American indicated that of American capital investments, the encouragement would remain in Haiti for a prolonged period and the United States to continuance of the military committed the Wilson administration had taken over all levels of occupation. The fact that the marines authority by martial American government and were maintaining also tended to commit the United States law and military repression Withdrawal under these circumstances to continuing the occupation. immediate overthrow of the client-govwould have resulted in the outburst by Haitian nationalernment and in an ugly anti-American French commercial interests would be pushed loan, along with The treaty extension and prospective American indicated that of American capital investments, the encouragement would remain in Haiti for a prolonged period and the United States to continuance of the military committed the Wilson administration had taken over all levels of occupation. The fact that the marines authority by martial American government and were maintaining also tended to commit the United States law and military repression Withdrawal under these circumstances to continuing the occupation. immediate overthrow of the client-govwould have resulted in the outburst by Haitian nationalernment and in an ugly anti-American --- Page 132 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 when the Wilson administration reasists. This was the situation aftermath of the European war. The sessed the occupation in the with the defeat of Gerthreat of European incursions had passed powers in the war, and the exhaustion of other European many even though it no longer had any but the military occupation, terminated. By the time strategic purpose, could not be practicably of American troops in 1919, Wilson contemplated the withdrawal it was too late. Wilson had consistently chamIn earlier rhetorical statements during the 1916 election when pioned the rights of small nations and, the Moncandidate, he had disparaged he was running as a peace renounced intervention and economic roe Doctrine and specifically exploitation in dealing with Mexico: their uneasiness as to our The suspicion of our southern neighbors, assume to play Big Brother growing power, their jealousy that we should has stood in the way without their invitation to do sO, constantly to them relations we wished to establish with them of the amicable and happy has the right to order its own institu- . . every nation, every people, tions as it will.20 administration clearly did not feel that these ideals The Wilson occupation of Haiti. Indeed, films applied to the contemporancous in Haiti were released by the Navy of marines engaged in combat the United States as part of Department to be shown throughout in at the campaign that was progress the military preparedness statement. 21 Whatever the applicability time Wilson made the above to Haiti, Wilson did of the Wilsonian right of self-determination there after the war. Secretary hope to limit the military involvement had felt that "we Daniels later stated that he personally of the Navy out as soon as possible after the war was ought to take steps to get intended to maintain the occupaover, > and that Wilson had never withdrawn the American troops tion after the war and would have Wilson, however, had already had he not suffered a stroke in 1919. to his stroke. tried once and failed to extricate the troops prior Wilson about Haiti Daniels recalled that he never had a talk with direction of the 1918, Armistice and that after the November, and by Financial Adviser occupation was taken over by Lansing both of whom Daniels characterized as imperialists." McIlhenny, war was ought to take steps to get intended to maintain the occupaover, > and that Wilson had never withdrawn the American troops tion after the war and would have Wilson, however, had already had he not suffered a stroke in 1919. to his stroke. tried once and failed to extricate the troops prior Wilson about Haiti Daniels recalled that he never had a talk with direction of the 1918, Armistice and that after the November, and by Financial Adviser occupation was taken over by Lansing both of whom Daniels characterized as imperialists." McIlhenny, --- Page 133 --- REONGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION between Wilson's rhetoric about the rights The contradiction of Haiti was dramaof small nations and the American occupation 1919. The Dartitized at the Paris Peace Conference in March, assert itself whenclient-goverment, always striving to Peace Conferguenave instructed the Haitian minister at the ever possible, Wilson and Lansing in an attempt to capitalize ence to approach posture as the champion of selfon Wilson's widely publicized reminder of the potentially embarrassing determination." The in Haiti caused Wilson and Lansing presence of American marines The American mission to the to hastily reconsider the occupation. and Lansing, cabled the State headed by Wilson Peace Conference, the withdrawal of the marine brigade Department that it desired guard, noting that the and the substitution of a small legation for the continuance Haitian-American treaty of 1915 did not provide law. In this cable the of American military occupation and martial had been conAmerican mission observed that military occupation and strategic reasons tinued because it was "impossible for military of the war, but that with after the outbreak to make any change" excuse for the several reasons canthe return of peace "the same to continue the not be advanced . . . it would seem impossible the United States occupation in the present form, without subjecting of smaller nations are to much criticism, particularly, as the rights of the President's utterbeing kept to the fore and in the light ances. 9? 24 the backed by the Wilson and Lansing hoped that Gendarmerie, token marine legaby the presence of a moral support engendered the situation. tion guard, would suffice to control to Port-au-Prince, relayed the message The State Department discussed by the various military and where the proposition was The consensus of all civilian figures who controlled the occupation. and in Port-authe officials directly involved, both in Washington the troop strength was that it would not be feasible to reduce Prince, In fact, the time for such a move was most for some time to come." marines were in the midst of suppressing inopportune because the 1918-19. A week after Lansing and the caco guerrilla uprisings of another brihad the change to a legation guard Wilson suggested to the beleaguered gade of marines was sent to Haiti as reinforcement Wilson and Lansing On being informed of the situation, garrison. he officials directly involved, both in Washington the troop strength was that it would not be feasible to reduce Prince, In fact, the time for such a move was most for some time to come." marines were in the midst of suppressing inopportune because the 1918-19. A week after Lansing and the caco guerrilla uprisings of another brihad the change to a legation guard Wilson suggested to the beleaguered gade of marines was sent to Haiti as reinforcement Wilson and Lansing On being informed of the situation, garrison. --- Page 134 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED to withdraw the marines, acknowledging dropped their proposal to make any change in status quo that "it would appear impossible in Haiti at present. 92 26 military commitment, the Faced with the necessity of continued of reorganizing the administration turned to the problem Wilson administration of the occupation. chaotic and ineffective American civilian officials had been As provided by the 1915 treaty, American commercial, and adminsent to Haiti as overseers of the financial, These officials, headed istrative functions of the client-goverment. conflict with marine comby a financial adviser, were in continual of financial adviser in manders. Shortly after assuming the position of the Navy 1919, John A. McIlhenny wrote Assistant there Secretary has been an extraordiRoosevelt that "I find that in the past the Cendarmerie amount of friction and bad feelings between friction had nary Officials." Mcllhenny noted that this and the Treaty and had been "greatly intensified" by begun during Butler's regime stated his disbelief in the possibility General Cole, who had "openly and frankly stated his of sound administration under the Treaty, set of a military or civil governorship . . . he belief in the necessity and make the change to military himself out to prove his premises, > 27 or civil government a necessity. who had been appointed Another treaty official, a navy surgeon been surprised to find since sanitary engineer, reported that "I have the of the Marine arrival here [1917] a complete plan on part and all it my in toto of the treaty Corps toward the abandonment that the civilians had "blood inferred." Butler, for his part, alleged to to take and the Gendarmerie and are going try in their eye for me that we are performing, away from the roads and other incidentals "we will cer- >> adding that, if Marine jurisdiction was curtailed, us, tainly obey, but not cheerfully." military and civilian officials The major point of conflict between in The treaty officentered around the question of who was charge. of power by the cials resented the interference and usurpation authority by and the marines felt that they had complete marines, necessity of maintaining American virtue of the alleged paramount absentee administrative comauthority. Admiral Knapp, who was visit that "the Gendarmander in Haiti, conceded after a personal in its hands," à but merie in Haiti is striving to get too much power ly obey, but not cheerfully." military and civilian officials The major point of conflict between in The treaty officentered around the question of who was charge. of power by the cials resented the interference and usurpation authority by and the marines felt that they had complete marines, necessity of maintaining American virtue of the alleged paramount absentee administrative comauthority. Admiral Knapp, who was visit that "the Gendarmander in Haiti, conceded after a personal in its hands," à but merie in Haiti is striving to get too much power --- Page 135 --- REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION was the failure of all American officials stated that the main difficulty inherent in martial except General Cole to understand "the powers it." >9 The admiral, who was law and the right of the person exercising Governor of Santo Domingo concurrently the United States Military law exercised on foreign and resided there, later stated that martial and added significantly soil was equivalent to military government, between the exercise of that "There is no fundamental difference and the Dominican Republic . governmental powers in Haiti in the Dominican Republic what was called Military Government what is called Martial Law in is the same thing in principle as Haiti."" their authority as best they could, With the marines asserting and the American civilian offithe Dartiguenave client-government direct it were placed in an ambiguous posicials who were sent to at the 1922 Senate Inquiry tion. An American businessman testifying in Haiti had been "undefined" stated that governmental authority those who are in Haiti of and that resulting confusion had "deprived of Haiti was and where confidence as to just what the Government 80 This ambiguity was lay, a problem we all know." the responsibility turnover of American officials; during the increased by the rapid there were six marine brigade comyears between 1915 and 1922 as well as numermanders and six commandants of the Gendarmerie, 81 With the arrival of within the State Department." ous changes the civilian treaty officials gained a Financial Adviser McIlhenny, had direct personal contact larger measure of authority. Mcllhenny Roosevelt and was able to cut with Assistant Secretary of the Navy command to the extent of the official chains of across complicated the selection of marine commanders." Neverbeing able to influence and administrative theless, the basic problems of disorganization confusion remained. by the continuing lack of The situation was always complicated American financier Roger L. positive direction from Washington. with affairs in Haiti Farnham, who had been intimately acquainted officials decade, told the 1922 Senate Inquiry that American for a could "in the absence of any definite policy had done the best they seemed to me to be and noted that "They always to be pursued," to be presented to them, along drifting and waiting for some plan was aware could >2 38 The Wilson administration which they proceed." confusion remained. by the continuing lack of The situation was always complicated American financier Roger L. positive direction from Washington. with affairs in Haiti Farnham, who had been intimately acquainted officials decade, told the 1922 Senate Inquiry that American for a could "in the absence of any definite policy had done the best they seemed to me to be and noted that "They always to be pursued," to be presented to them, along drifting and waiting for some plan was aware could >2 38 The Wilson administration which they proceed." --- Page 136 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 of this difficulty and of the conflicts 1918 Division of Latin-American between occupation officials. A "complete Affairs memorandum referred to manly disorganization" in Haiti and stated that "It is possible for these separate officers to not hucooperate satisfactorily; "Too function as a whole, and August, 1920, memorandum many cooks spoil the broth.'" In an Haiti," Dana G. Munro of the Office entitled "The Present Situation in that "treaty officials have been of Foreign Trade Adviser noted without the acting on their own personal initiative knowledge or support of the current system was a "failure" because Department" and that the treaty and the failure of the of "the indefiniteness of the to pursue a consistent, department, through the treaty officials, definite object." s 84 Possible intelligent and tactful policy leading to any the efforts by the administration to occupation were dropped when reform the object of widespread Wilson's Haitian policy became tial election public criticism during the 1920 campaign. Internal criticism presidenceased and public within the administration purpose" of the pronouncements emphasized the "benevolent and the intention occupation, of the the "gratitude" of the Haitian The Wilson United States to withdraw shortly. 86 people, ject of national administration's attention activities in Haiti had become a subpresidential candidate in August, 1920, when Democratic vicecampaign Franklin D. Roosevelt made the the statement: "You know I have had following running of a couple of little something to do with Haiti's Constitution myself, republics. The facts are that I wrote Constitution." >> 86 and, if) I do say it, I think it a pretty good The assertion about authorship of Haiti's ous. Nevertheless, Republican Constitution was dubiing took up the Haitian issue presidential in candidate Warren HardMarion, Ohio, nine days a speech from his front porch in dent he would not later, saying that if he were elected presidraft a constitution "empower for an Assistant Secretary of the Navy to helpless jam it down their throats at the neighbors in the West Indies and Marines." >> In subsequent point of bayonets borne by U.S. "rape of Haiti" and charged campaign that speeches Harding referred to the been killed by American "thousands of native Haitians marines." 87 James Weldon have prominent black Republican and a Johnson, a tional Advisory Committee who member of the Republican Nawas active in opposing the occupa- , saying that if he were elected presidraft a constitution "empower for an Assistant Secretary of the Navy to helpless jam it down their throats at the neighbors in the West Indies and Marines." >> In subsequent point of bayonets borne by U.S. "rape of Haiti" and charged campaign that speeches Harding referred to the been killed by American "thousands of native Haitians marines." 87 James Weldon have prominent black Republican and a Johnson, a tional Advisory Committee who member of the Republican Nawas active in opposing the occupa- --- Page 137 --- REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION situation with Harding in Marion and tion, discussed the Haitian that he looked upon the Haitian matter observed that "I could see tree. He could not conceal his as a gift right off the Christmas Harding told Johnson, "We delight." After the election President material. >2 88 certainly made a good shot with that Haitian after the Navy DePublic criticism of the occupation intensifed Barnett's report alluding partment released Marine Commandant natives" in the closing weeks of the to "indiscriminate killing of decried "slavery in Haiti," 1920 election campaign." Newspapers and Wilson's hypocrisy, but "slaughter, "shameful abuse of power," The Literary were also made in defense of the president. statements had been made against the Digest pointed out that the same charges insurrection during the Republicans with reference to the Philippine atrocity One of the more sensational 1900 election campaign." York Times two days after the release stories appeared in the New of the Barnett statement: largely made up of and officered by SouthHow American marines, machine guns from airplanes upon defenseless erners, opened fire with and children in the open market Haitian villages, killing men, slain women, for "sport" by a hoodlum element among places; how natives were and how the ancient corvee system of enforced these same Southerners; executed, increasing, through retaliation, labor was revived and ruthlessly was told yesterday by Henry the banditry in Haiti and Santo Domingo, on the West Indies. A. Franck, the noted traveler and authority sensitive to the wave of criticism, and Occupation officials were permission to place George Financial Adviser Mcllhenny requested article "Healthy written the laudatory Marvin, who had previously on the Haitian government Haiti" for World's Work magazine, and papers payroll "to prepare articles for American magazines in Haiti." truthfully showing the work of American would occupation censor all articles, Mcllhenny assured the department that he saying that of State Bainbridge Colby disapproved, to but Secretary but not Marvin could be hired to make commercial propaganda 42 solely for the American occupation." write propaganda within the United States had preOpposition to the occupation launched during the 1920 election dated the Republican attack had been favorable. In a campaign, but most journalistic coverage Haiti" for World's Work magazine, and papers payroll "to prepare articles for American magazines in Haiti." truthfully showing the work of American would occupation censor all articles, Mcllhenny assured the department that he saying that of State Bainbridge Colby disapproved, to but Secretary but not Marvin could be hired to make commercial propaganda 42 solely for the American occupation." write propaganda within the United States had preOpposition to the occupation launched during the 1920 election dated the Republican attack had been favorable. In a campaign, but most journalistic coverage --- Page 138 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 1969 study of press reaction to the Dominican Republic, American occupation in Haiti and the termined that scholar John W. Blassingame deforty-nine out of sixty-nine study endorsed the policy of intervention journals included in the only twenty "strenuously from 1904 to 1919, while few journals, excepting the objected." Blassingame pointed out that Nation, interventions. 43 Several consistently fought against the colonial interests, magazines active in promoting American notably World's Work and National published roseate articles praising the Geographic, 1920, just prior to the denunciations occupation in Haiti. In midpaign, the Nation published attendant to the election cammann and James Weldon a series of articles by Herbert J. Seligoccupation for racism, Johnson, both of whom attacked the brutality, and economic son, who was Secretary of the National exploitation.* Johnment of Colored People Association for the AdvanceNation organized American (NAACP), and Ernest Gruening of the occupation. Both men also anti-imperialist efforts to terminate the a Haitian resistance played leading roles in the formation of of the Nation, continued movement, while Gruening, as managing editor to direct attacks through the early 1930s. In 1920, with the against the occupation the election campaign and the of exposés engendered by impact the articles, most American periodicals Seligmann and Johnson James Weldon Johnson were critical of the occupation." ,45 with prominent members visited Haiti in February, 1920, and met of the Haitian an organization similar to the NAACP elite, urging them to set up who had opposed the in Haiti. Georges Sylvain, affected Haitians followed occupation since its inception, and other disPatriotique, which Johnson's advice and founded the Union United States. 46 The undertook activities propaganda work in Haiti and the of the Union severely limited because of American Patriotique in Haiti were censorship, but it did martial law and rigid took place manage to organize public press during the visit of the 1922 demonstrations that in close touch with Ernest Senate Inquiry. Sylvain kept coordinated Gruening in New York, where Gruening helped raise money anti-occupation for the activities in the United States and case before the Senate presentation of the Union Patriotique's Inquiry. The fight against the occupation in the around the Nation, where United States centered Gruening and Oswald Garrison Villard Haiti were censorship, but it did martial law and rigid took place manage to organize public press during the visit of the 1922 demonstrations that in close touch with Ernest Senate Inquiry. Sylvain kept coordinated Gruening in New York, where Gruening helped raise money anti-occupation for the activities in the United States and case before the Senate presentation of the Union Patriotique's Inquiry. The fight against the occupation in the around the Nation, where United States centered Gruening and Oswald Garrison Villard --- Page 139 --- REOHGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION arranged for publicized the argument for Haitian independence, Senate Inquiry, and of the Haitian case before the 1922 presentation the activities of the Haiti-Santo Domingo Independence Nation promoted held several public meetings. In 1921 the Society, which prepared for the lengthy memoir that the Union Patriotique Relaprinted and the Senate Foreign submission to the State Department memoir could not be tions Committee." 48 The Union Patriotique's commander, nor could reprinted in Haiti on orders from the brigade 49 Because of the from the American press. comments on memoir of anti-imperialists in the repression within Haiti, the assistance especially when it came to United States was all the more valuable, During before the Senate Inquiry." making an effective presentation effective at 1920s the Union Patriotique was marginally the early to Haitian nationalists under best, but few alternatives were open exiled former presidential American military rule. Some, including futile secret candidate Dr. Rosalvo Bobo, persisted in plotting when the Ameralliances that were to go into effect if and intellipolitical After 1921 the Gendarmerie ican troops were withdrawn." influence, and attitude section kept records on the reputation, 62 gence Haitians toward the occupation. of all prominent of the occupation during the 1920 The Republican denunciations agitation in the press culminated election campaign and associated late 1921 and early 1922. The inin a full-scale Senate Inquiry in Committee on Haiti and Santo quiry was made by a special Select and chaired by Republican consisting of three senators Domingo of Illinois. e McCormick had advocated Senator Medill McCormick since 1920 and was in close correspondreforming the occupation whom he sent to Haiti in advance ence with Ernest Gruening, with the Haitians. Gruening, of the committee to arrange contacts code because of marine censorcorresponding with McCormick by affair with the Haitian elite ship, managed to schedule a social The Occuof the committee's three nights in Port-au-Prince. for one arranged for the committee to be entertained pation had previously Gruening also contacted his friends exclusively by the Occupation. suggested many of the in the Union Patriotique and personally consisted of five senators: Philander C. Knox (R-Pa.); The committee nominally Atlee Pomerene (D-Ohio); William H. King (D-Utah); Tasker L. Oddie (R-Nev.); but Knox and King did not participate. and McCormick; a social The Occuof the committee's three nights in Port-au-Prince. for one arranged for the committee to be entertained pation had previously Gruening also contacted his friends exclusively by the Occupation. suggested many of the in the Union Patriotique and personally consisted of five senators: Philander C. Knox (R-Pa.); The committee nominally Atlee Pomerene (D-Ohio); William H. King (D-Utah); Tasker L. Oddie (R-Nev.); but Knox and King did not participate. and McCormick; --- Page 140 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 slogans, such as "Don't Make Haiti America's carried on placards by Haitian Congo," that were rival of the senators in demonstrators who greeted the armittee heard November, 1921.58 While in Haiti the comtestimony from elite of Patriotique and from peasants in the interior representatives the Union atrocity stories, but the committee who related numerous sensational statements and in its final was unimpressed by the more tions in Haitian testimony which report pointed to contradicThe committee conducted suggested subornation." of the occupation in Haiti and an elaborate and thorough investigation occupation in the Dominican also expended a lesser effort on the Republic. The hearings came to several thousand printed record of the exercise was largely pages. Yet the whole elaborate rationalize the redundant, since the decisions to reorganize and and occupation had been made in advance were mainly unaffected by it. The of the inquiry of the impulse to reform the hearings were a consequence election campaign and served occupation generated during the 1920 more as a public peroration on the confused, expiation and official tion than as an impetus to mismanaged first phase of the occupaby the committee coincided new decisions. The conclusions reached man McCormick had almost exactly with the opinions Chairarticle entitled "Our previously Failure expressed in 1920. In a magazine the need for administrative in Haiti," McCormick had stressed and stated, "We are there, and reorganization in rather than withdrawal, there for twenty years.' >> 55 The my judgment we ought to stay by the Wilson administration committee criticized "blunders" made Haiti, in in failing to centralize enforcing the corvée, and in failing to select authority in personnel who were "sympathetic to the occupation tain cordial personal and official Haitians and able to mainhand, it praised sanitation relations with them." On the other work, road building, governmental administrative reforms, currency reform, the maintenance of peace and alleged increases in trade, and under the treaty, the peace of the security, concluding that "In brief, ernment, and the security of its republic, the solvency of its Govfirst time in many years. 92 56 The people have been established for the forum for the various divergent committee hearings provided a from a statement by the views on the occupation, ranging Episcopal Right Reverend Charles Bishop of Puerto Rico and Haiti, that "The Blayney Colmore, reconstruction road building, governmental administrative reforms, currency reform, the maintenance of peace and alleged increases in trade, and under the treaty, the peace of the security, concluding that "In brief, ernment, and the security of its republic, the solvency of its Govfirst time in many years. 92 56 The people have been established for the forum for the various divergent committee hearings provided a from a statement by the views on the occupation, ranging Episcopal Right Reverend Charles Bishop of Puerto Rico and Haiti, that "The Blayney Colmore, reconstruction --- Page 141 --- REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION marines in Haiti provides one of the most work of the United States American histhrilling and gratifying chapters in contemporaneous indulged in by tory," to stories of water torture and brandings marines. 57 Committee recommended that In its final report the McCormick Haiti because "drastic reducthe marine garrison be maintained in withdrawal, would certainly be tion of the marine force, or its early and by the organization of followed by a recurrence of brigandage control, the senators revolutionary bands." Instead of relinquishing of indusrecommended that the United States undertake a program and coordinate education, abolish martial law, trial and agricultural 58 In an informal preliminary the administration of the occupation." McCormick and his colleagues report to Secretary of State Hughes, Commissioner" with powers recommended that an American "High should be and Envoy Plenipotentiary" of "Minister Extraordinary to supervise the Gendarmerie, appointed by the State Department civilian treaty officials, all of the marine brigade, and the several 59 Hughes had whom would be relegated to subordinate positions." and, in Octosimilar conclusion even before the inquiry, come to a of the Navy Edwin Denby to recomber, 1921, had asked Secretary be in charge of Haiti as "Representative mend a marine officer to put exercised by with duties similar to those currently of the President" in Cuba, but with more power and General Enoch H. Crowder General Smedley Butler for greater initiative. Hughes suggested served in Haiti and had noting that Butler had already the position, successful." 60 been "exceedingly officer to be high commissioner, rather The selection of a military observers, indicated that than a civilian as had been hoped by many remained that of exercising the major concern of the United States could not be gracefully withAmerican authority. American troops Dominican Republic, SO drawn, as they were from the neighboring function of sitting on Haiti the Occupation was left with the primary of military control. until cireumstances permitted the relinquishment did not make systematic Under military leadership the Occupation and most departments were preparations for American withdrawal, of responsibility. The key reluctant to promote Haitians to positions from the Dominican Republic factors in the American withdrawal of the Guardia Nacional to in 1924 involved transferring control many remained that of exercising the major concern of the United States could not be gracefully withAmerican authority. American troops Dominican Republic, SO drawn, as they were from the neighboring function of sitting on Haiti the Occupation was left with the primary of military control. until cireumstances permitted the relinquishment did not make systematic Under military leadership the Occupation and most departments were preparations for American withdrawal, of responsibility. The key reluctant to promote Haitians to positions from the Dominican Republic factors in the American withdrawal of the Guardia Nacional to in 1924 involved transferring control --- Page 142 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 and the working out of a contingent trusted Dominican protégés of the Gendarmerie political solution. e In Haiti, the Haitianization until after the strikes and officer corps made relatively little progress riots of 1929. commissioner was averted The selection of General Butler as high of the Division of Latin by the intercession of Dana G. Munro members of the McCorAmerican Affairs, who, along with several of State Hughes that mick Committee, pointed out to Secretary the The eventual unsuited for job." Butler was temperamentally had been brigade commander selection, General John H. Russell, and ultimately spent through most of the period since late 1917, finally retiring as high thirteen years as the top marine in Haiti, recalled that his first introcommissioner in late 1930. Russell later cruise while he duction to Haiti had been on an 1893 midshipman's the United States Naval Academy: was attending under remarks covering this visit I speak In my midshipman's journal, I had ever seen and I express the of Port-au-Prince as the dirtiest city However, inexorhope that I will never have to visit the country again. years later, again, able Fate decreed otherwise and some twenty-four thirteen years in Port-auI arrived in Haiti and lived for approximately Prince." Russell clarified his own attitude toward sharing authority In 1921 to the State Departwith Haitian collaborators in a memorandum for Haiti": ment entitled "Regarding a Constructive Policy the of dual control, or of two nations administering The absurdity obvious to need comment. Two men can ride affairs of a country is too behind. If the United States is to ride behind a horse but one must ride it had better withdraw entirely and let in its conduct of Haitian Affairs of chaos when, after a time, the United the country revert to a condition Haiti or permit some foreign States would be forced to again occupy nation to do s0.9 commissioner from 1922 until 1930, exRussell, serving as high effort in supporting progressive polipended considerable personal Colonel Rafael Trujillo, who assumed The most notable American protégé was after American departure and began, with command of the Guardia less than a dictatorship year in 1930. American support, a thirty-one-year in its conduct of Haitian Affairs of chaos when, after a time, the United the country revert to a condition Haiti or permit some foreign States would be forced to again occupy nation to do s0.9 commissioner from 1922 until 1930, exRussell, serving as high effort in supporting progressive polipended considerable personal Colonel Rafael Trujillo, who assumed The most notable American protégé was after American departure and began, with command of the Guardia less than a dictatorship year in 1930. American support, a thirty-one-year --- Page 143 --- REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION but he did not hold the cies in educational and economic uplift, the that they Haitians in high regard. In 1919 he expressed opinion Latin races" and "the characteristics of both the negro and the had Haitien who lives in the country is more or that "The uneducated do whatever he is told." In 1925 he less of an animal, who will had been held in a backward state by observed that the peasants of a child of not more than seven the elite and had "the mentality conditions." Russell felt years of age reared under advantageous was "bordering of the Haitian population >2 that "a large proportion" existing in such a state, and on a state of savagery, if not actually about voodoo priests practicing apparently believed spurious stories human sacrifice." 64 whom the McCormick Unlike some of his marine predecessors Russell made a point Committee had criticized as "unsympathetic," with members of the polite and cordial relations of maintaining who spoke French perfectly, associated Haitian elite, and his wife, during his command of the with elite ladies." At various times commissioner, Russell was marine brigade and tenure as high to have been a racial modaccused of being a racist, but he appears because of his position as comerate who was subjected to attack of the American presence, mander of the Occupation and figurehead supported Jim racist. Russell, a Georgian, which was pervasively when he was chairman of the board of Crow racial segregation, as the membership applicathe all-white American Club and vetoed mulatto, white Swiss who was about to marry a Haitian tion of a courteous in his personal relations with but he was scrupulously of the 1930 Presidential ComHaitians. He avowed to the chairman "cultivate that he had made determined efforts to personally mission of color. 99 66 That relations were never Haitian society regardless be attributed more to generally particularly warm or enthusiastic can segregation and social conventions of racial and cultural to operative in chief, rather than to Russell's personal aloofness as commander exceptional prejudice on Russell's part. commissioner in February, General Russell was appointed high all American activities 1922, with orders to supervise and coordinate as the personal in Haiti and report directly to the State Department of comof the president in Haiti." The position high authorrepresentative of diplomatic and administrative missioner involved a fusing 66 That relations were never Haitian society regardless be attributed more to generally particularly warm or enthusiastic can segregation and social conventions of racial and cultural to operative in chief, rather than to Russell's personal aloofness as commander exceptional prejudice on Russell's part. commissioner in February, General Russell was appointed high all American activities 1922, with orders to supervise and coordinate as the personal in Haiti and report directly to the State Department of comof the president in Haiti." The position high authorrepresentative of diplomatic and administrative missioner involved a fusing --- Page 144 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 ity, and, as Financial Adviser Arthur C. interesting resemblance to Great Britain's Millspaugh noted, bore "an 1882 to 1914." 68 Russell himself position in Egypt from role and that of the British recognized the analogy between his Cromer's high commissioners and had read "interesting and instructive" book Lord requested special on Egypt, but when he reports on Egypt the State replying: "The Department has read with Department demurred, in which you compare the relations interest your despatch and Haiti to the relations between the United States will doubtless realize that between Great Britain and Egypt. You Haiti have critics of this Government's sometimes made this same policy toward upon the Department.' >> 69 comparison a basis for attacks Client-President Louis Borno, whose term of Russell's tenure as high commissioner, office coincided with Egyptian analogy, and stated, was also attracted by the tionably" United States according to Russell, that control over Haiti was "unquessecurity of the Panama Canal essential to the just as British control necessary to protect the Suez Canal,70 in Egypt was Butler, referred to "a deadline drawn Gendarmerie Commandant the same as there is in between me and the Haitiens, Egyptians." 9 The Egypt-between the British agents and the comparison with Lord missioner in Egypt was apt. Cromer's rule as high comoccupation, observed that Cromer, in his history of the British control and "one alien race, the English, have guide a second alien race, the Turks, had to disliked, in the government of a third by whom they are Egyptians, in turn, were race, the Egyptians." >3 The A similar tripartite unsympathetic" to the dominant "races." 71 mulatto Haitian system existed in Haiti, with the the elite, and the black rural masses. Americans, Russell's authority in Haiti was no less than that of counterpart; he supervised all civilian his British marine brigade and the Gendarmerie treaty officials, controlled the and dominated the Haitian by virtue of his military rank, between treaty officials and client-goverment. both the All correspondence governments was forwarded United States and Haitian instructed his subordinates through his office. In early 1923 Russell purely of an administrative that "Treaty Officials whose functions are matters of policy unless character will in no case comment on Throughout his tenure as specifically high requested to do SO by me. 2 commissioner, Russell remained ex- civilian his British marine brigade and the Gendarmerie treaty officials, controlled the and dominated the Haitian by virtue of his military rank, between treaty officials and client-goverment. both the All correspondence governments was forwarded United States and Haitian instructed his subordinates through his office. In early 1923 Russell purely of an administrative that "Treaty Officials whose functions are matters of policy unless character will in no case comment on Throughout his tenure as specifically high requested to do SO by me. 2 commissioner, Russell remained ex- --- Page 145 --- REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION to the Secretary of tremely jealous of his authority, complaining officials were consulted State about division of authority when treaty he be consulted on nominadirectly by the department, insisting that the disfor Haitian commands, procuring tion of marine personnel and feuding with civilian missal of recalcitrant marines and civilians, officials who challenged or questioned his policies." Russell presided conbureaucracy over which The Occupation civilians who served in departments sisted of about 250 American officials. The most powerful treaty headed by the several treaty the of drawing up the official, the financial adviser, had prerogative the expenditure of all Haitian government budget and authorizing to dismissal in funds, but even this official was subject governmental Financial Adviser Arthur C. Millspaugh, case of conflict with Russell. with Russell, described who was dismissed following a controversy commissioner's authority as follows: the high to the President of Haiti Nominally, the treaty officials are responsible in practice, they are directed (Haitian] Ministers; or to their respective He not only vetoes but also drafts by the High Commissioner. : . contracts with American companies, Haitian legislation. He negotiates attitude to be assumed toward them by determines the administrative himself in the details of claims, the American treaty officials, and interests and in agricultural, educathe collection of revenue, road construction officers have little official tional, and sanitary matters. American and their treaty relations with the Ministers contact with the Haitian executive become perfunctory or formal.a have necessarily commandant of the Gendarmerie, wrote Colonel J. S. Turrill, that "Nothing of importance Marine Corps Commandant Lejeune General Russell's sanction," can be done in the Gendarmerie without orders from its nominal and that when the Gendarmerie received had to get Russell's Turrill always chief, the Haitian client-president, approval before carrying them out.?4 Russell and the adminThe appointment of High Commissioner intended to centralize authority istrative reorganization of 1922 were of the Occupation. A correand increase the internal efficiency of the Haitian clientsponding change was made in the leadership become recalcitrant and government. Dartiguenave, who had again the proposed obstructive, this time over the questions of contracting endarmerie without orders from its nominal and that when the Gendarmerie received had to get Russell's Turrill always chief, the Haitian client-president, approval before carrying them out.?4 Russell and the adminThe appointment of High Commissioner intended to centralize authority istrative reorganization of 1922 were of the Occupation. A correand increase the internal efficiency of the Haitian clientsponding change was made in the leadership become recalcitrant and government. Dartiguenave, who had again the proposed obstructive, this time over the questions of contracting --- Page 146 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1984 and the granting of a monopoly on the American loan consolidation Nationale, was replaced by importation of currency to the Banque and refinement who was Louis Borno." Borno was a man of stature Although he had accomplished as both a poet and a statesman." minister of opposed Ceneral Waller's regime as Dartiguenave's colonel in 1918) affairs in 1916, and Russell himself (as a foreign his dismissal from the Cabinet, Borno was temperahad insisted on to the purposes and methods mentally and ideologically sympathetic admirer of Mussolini, he welof the occupation." 77 As an avowed in Haiti and defended the comed the suppression of political dissent the people of Haiti, who occupation as a period of great progress; 99 of exercising ignorant and poor, were "incapable were "illiterate, and had to be governed by progressive, authorithe right to vote" toward authoritarian uplift and tarian leaders." Borno's inclinations were comparable to the adoption of American technical proficiency of fascism in Italy, but Borno and advanced, sophisticated program lacked the popular, nationalistic other Haitian collaborators sorely to nationalism or ethnic, appeal of Mussolini. Any effective have appeal had to, and eventually did, racial assertiveness in Haiti would of foreign domination. In begin with the demand to rid the country elseto the charisma of contemporary fascist leadership contrast stolid and distant. For the occupation to have where, Borno was would have been self-destrucexcited popular political awareness total lack of popular appeal tive. At the same time the occupation's precipitate anti-American and indifference to public relations helped resistance. with High Commissioner Russell in an Borno cooperated closely Adviser Millspaugh termed a "Joint arrangement which Financial until the strikes Dictatorship," and was retained as client-president harmony between and riots of 1929." Despite the apparent outward retained effective Borno and his sponsors, the Americans always the action of Financial control of the occupation as demonstrated withheld by Borno's pay check Adviser Dr. W. W. Cumberland, who with him. Cumberland the first time the president failed to cooperate that forward" and that remarked that "He respected me from day close friends." 80 after this incident he and Borno became between "very Borno and the AmerThe close and sympathetic relations the turmoil and conflict charactericans were in marked contrast to client-president harmony between and riots of 1929." Despite the apparent outward retained effective Borno and his sponsors, the Americans always the action of Financial control of the occupation as demonstrated withheld by Borno's pay check Adviser Dr. W. W. Cumberland, who with him. Cumberland the first time the president failed to cooperate that forward" and that remarked that "He respected me from day close friends." 80 after this incident he and Borno became between "very Borno and the AmerThe close and sympathetic relations the turmoil and conflict charactericans were in marked contrast to --- Page 147 --- REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION Dartiguenave istic of the last years of the Dartiguenave government. and recalcitrance accordhad alternated between pliant cooperation to please the Amering to shifting political circumstances, the trying part of a Haitian patriot, icans, on the one hand, while playing both sides; the Union the other. In the end he was rejected by on refused his offer of a large donation and the Americans Patriotique Commander Russell described Darcast him off." In 1919 Brigade a man of no "At heart he is anti-American, tiguenave as follows: believer, and he will only work for integrity, a schemer, a Vaudou interests or he is the of Haiti when it is to his own personal good >> 82 forced to do SO by the Occupation." concurred in disparagMost Americans involved in the occupation Butler, for instance, referred to Dartiguenave's ing Dartiguenave. and distrusted by a vast majority of the government as "despised official rolls, and as far as I have people at large, not on the pay with justice. 88 personally observed to my own humiliation, had made a favorable imFinancial Adviser John A. Mcllhenny 1919 and had, in turn, been taken pression on his arrival in Haiti in At the time, he described in by the Dartiguenave client-government with the belief in the absolute necesDartiguenave as "fully imbued and in accord with all that the Occusity for American Occupation, felt that various objections pation is seeking to do." McIlhenny Cabinet were "all due to their effort raised by Dartiguenave and his of Haiti that they are in fact the to have it appear to the people when it comes to the last show-down, Government of Haiti : . . but show of firmness by the they are perfectly willing, upon which proper is deemed necessary by the Occupation, to do that thing Occupation." 84 reported to the State Department that A year later McIlhenny "definitely and strongly antithe Dartiguenave government was to reorganize the Cabinet American" and that it would be necessary with the to force the government to cooperate and take measures between the Dartiguenave Occupation." The final estrangement about as the result of conflicts government and the Americans came charter to the National involving the transfer of the 1910 Banque which American Bank and the flotation of a new loan by City Haiti's external debt. creditors were to consolidate transfer control of the Banque The United States had hoped to and strongly antithe Dartiguenave government was to reorganize the Cabinet American" and that it would be necessary with the to force the government to cooperate and take measures between the Dartiguenave Occupation." The final estrangement about as the result of conflicts government and the Americans came charter to the National involving the transfer of the 1910 Banque which American Bank and the flotation of a new loan by City Haiti's external debt. creditors were to consolidate transfer control of the Banque The United States had hoped to --- Page 148 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 debt to American financial interNationale and the Haitian external F. L. Mayer of the Division of ests from the outset. In January, 1918, Latin American Affairs noted: in the affairs of another is, it would Political influence by one country control therein, especially in the seem, in direct ratio with economic American case of a small state such as Haiti . outright progressive feelings toward the banking methods would result in increased influence good in Haitian life and United States in Haiti and added American politics." American minister and the financial adviser A few weeks later the that they were "of the opinion reported to the State Department Nationale to American that the transfer of the control of the Banque from the standpoint of banking interests would be highly desirable interests in Haiti." 87 With advancement of American influence and Bank purchased of the State Department, National City the support other American participants in the Banque the shares held by the French stockholders for $1,412,- in April, 1916, and bought out the the transfer of the Banque 000 in June, 1920." In order to complete the 1910 Banque American interests it was necessary to revise to charter. National City Bank, and the Dartiguenave The State Department, for transfer of the Banque government began three-way negotiations the Haitian government, charter in 1920. Mcllhenny, representing National City Bank on charter reached tentative agreement with to insist on additional modifications, but the bank then proceeded backed by Amerconcessions which the Dartiguenave government, who feared monopoly of ican and other foreign business houses refused to approve." 89 Dartiforeign currency by the Banque Nationale modifications of the Banque guenave's refusal to accept the new exacerbated dispute over laws charter coincided with an already and returning the right of foreigners to own property restricting to Germans which the Dartiguenave governsequestered property without American approval. In response ment had attempted to pass refused to consider the new governto this obstinacy, Mcllhenny and suspended the salaries of mental budget for the coming year Cabinet. 90 Secretary of State Colby President Dartiguenave and his of salaries, informing Mcexpressed displeasure at the stopping modifications of the Banque guenave's refusal to accept the new exacerbated dispute over laws charter coincided with an already and returning the right of foreigners to own property restricting to Germans which the Dartiguenave governsequestered property without American approval. In response ment had attempted to pass refused to consider the new governto this obstinacy, Mcllhenny and suspended the salaries of mental budget for the coming year Cabinet. 90 Secretary of State Colby President Dartiguenave and his of salaries, informing Mcexpressed displeasure at the stopping --- Page 149 --- REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION Ilhenny that the department had not another State Department official authorized the move, and steps taken by treaty officials noted that "arbitrary and radical without partment have committed the authorization from the DeThis confusion was Department to an extreme position. >9 01 in the State apparently caused by the change of Department following the dismissal of leadership Lansing early in 1920. When Secretary of State the 1922 Senate Mellhenny was about to appear before American Affairs Inquiry, Sumner Welles of the Division of Latin informed Secretary of State henny's stoppage of Haitian salaries in 1920 Hughes that McIlcertain confidential and oral had been "based upon Secretary of State, Mr. instructions given to him by the then these instructions Lansing" and that, since "the would be harmful at this publication of if Hughes persuaded time," it would be best orders. 02 Mcllhenny not to disclose the conflict in McIlhenny later attributed the failure of the negotiations to the obstinacy of National Banque charter Welles accused National City Bank, and Sumner City Bank of garded an agreement which they entered having "deliberately disreof State." Welles, in 1922, into with the Department permit the City Bank argued that "I do not feel that we should Government which this people to exact conditions from the Haitian which the City Bank formally Department regards as too onerous and ing reached in 1920." 93 The agreed to renounce in the understandState to procure modifications in the Department persisted in trying National City Bank abandoned Banque charter favoring Haiti, and importation of foreign its demands for monopoly of the signed after the currency, but the final Contract of Transfer, departure of the obstructive ment, was little different from the Dartiguenave governtary of State Knox had considered original 1910 charter that SecreThe most binding facet of the 1921-22 unduly exploitative. 94 pation was the consolidation of the reorganization of the occuhands of American creditors. Haitian external debt in the of United States This had long been a major policy and had the objective The Wilson administration had prompted 1917 treaty extension. ing the war, but Wilson, who tried to procure a Haitian loan durthe debt to ensure realized the importance of complete American control, refunding Administration has not access to banking observed that "this assistance that some pre- The most binding facet of the 1921-22 unduly exploitative. 94 pation was the consolidation of the reorganization of the occuhands of American creditors. Haitian external debt in the of United States This had long been a major policy and had the objective The Wilson administration had prompted 1917 treaty extension. ing the war, but Wilson, who tried to procure a Haitian loan durthe debt to ensure realized the importance of complete American control, refunding Administration has not access to banking observed that "this assistance that some pre- --- Page 150 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 and I do not feel at all sure that we vious administrations have had, look attractive to The could make the refunding here proposed Street. 99 95 informed the State Department that In 1917 Roger L. Farnham Guaranty Trust Company, and National City Bank, J. P. Morgan, duty," Bank would make a loan offer as "a patriotic First National that the loan be regarded by the Treasury but only on condition that the Treasury Department in the same light as a Liberty Loan, bank deHaitian bonds as security for public Department accept Haitian Railway bonds be liquidated, posits, that the controversial Haiti during the and that the United States guarantee to supervise Loan and the bonds. 96 Shortly after this the second Liberty life of attendant to financing the European war forced other circumstances operation. the abandonment of the Haitian refunding had been client-government, which originally The Dartiguenave of its desperate to procure a new loan as a means alleviating after eager vigorously opposed refunding negotiations financial condition, Haitians would in no case be allowed to partiit became clear that occupation in allocation of new funds or in determining cipate to achieve some influpolicies. Frustrated in all his many intrigues Dartiguenave became ence in the management of the occupation, to Acting Finanrecalcitrant after 1920 and, according increasingly Maumus, was intent on allowing his client-governcial Adviser A.] J. of the Amerment to drift into bankruptcy as a means discrediting in case. as was safe any icans, feeling that his own salary president who was by Financial Adviser McIlhenny, Maumus, supported the new loan, threatened absent in the United States negotiating salaries until Dartigueto stop payment of all Haitian government operation, but Dartito cooperate with the refunding nave agreed hostile and the loan could not be officially guenave remained advent of Louis Borno as president." 97 In changconcluded until the of a loan in 1920, Dartiguenave ing his position on the desirability because that a refunding loan was no longer necessary that argued made it possible to care for the debt service, increased revenues from devaluation of the French franc had an advantage to be gained loan would cost 7 or 8 percent, been eliminated, and that the new interest. 08 These conwhile the old loans cost only 5 or 6 percent be officially guenave remained advent of Louis Borno as president." 97 In changconcluded until the of a loan in 1920, Dartiguenave ing his position on the desirability because that a refunding loan was no longer necessary that argued made it possible to care for the debt service, increased revenues from devaluation of the French franc had an advantage to be gained loan would cost 7 or 8 percent, been eliminated, and that the new interest. 08 These conwhile the old loans cost only 5 or 6 percent --- Page 151 --- REORGANIZATION AND RATIONALIZATION siderations were of no great was intent on dominating importance to the United States, which Haitian finances. Faced with Dartiguenave's loan, the State Department obstinacy in refusing to sign the new issued by the "Military Government considered using an executive order Proclamation, but the of Haiti" under the Martial Law of Borno as the impasse was eliminated with the new client-president in June, 1922. Borno inauguration promised to pass the loan contract within had earlier assuming office. 90 The 1922 three or four days of City Bank, which bid 92.137 refunding loan was awarded to National Haitian and sold $16 million of government bonds on the thirty-year 96%. 100 The bonds were American market at a price of ernment revenues and supported by a general lien on Haitian govyielded 6.25 percent interest maturity. The loan permitted the when held to settlement of pending foreign refunding of earlier debts, the system of revenue claims, and reform of the cumbersome vided little in the pledges associated with the old debt, but had way of extra funds for economic prono clear financial development and it consolidated,. advantage over the earlier French loans, which The 1922 loan committed the United term supervision of Haitian States government to longto protect the interests of finances, since it would be called upon fully paid. The loan American bondholders until the loan was tion and rationalization effectively completed the 1921-22 of the occupation, which reorganizaa static, efficient, and internally now emerged as forth, SO long as Haiti remained disciplined organization. Hencenotice in quiet, the occupation attracted little Washington or in the American States foreign policy was concerned, press. So far as United news. President who no news from Haiti was good independence Harding, had championed the cause of during the 1920 election Haitian sonal interest in the occupation campaign, took little pertreaty officials with his beyond trying to replace State own political appointments: 102 competent Hughes repeatedly expressed a desire Secretary of and limit the extent of martial to withdraw from Haiti in 1924 that he had no intention law, and remarked to Joseph Grew of America because the intervening anywhere in Central country and the would any extension of the situation that existed Congress not support in Haiti and the Domini- ed the cause of during the 1920 election Haitian sonal interest in the occupation campaign, took little pertreaty officials with his beyond trying to replace State own political appointments: 102 competent Hughes repeatedly expressed a desire Secretary of and limit the extent of martial to withdraw from Haiti in 1924 that he had no intention law, and remarked to Joseph Grew of America because the intervening anywhere in Central country and the would any extension of the situation that existed Congress not support in Haiti and the Domini- --- Page 152 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 wrote: "We do not wish to remain can Republic. In 1928, Hughes as we can do SO with assurance in Haiti. We wish to leave as soon and a disregard of that there will not be a recurrence of bloodshed which might require the obligations of international intercourse Government." ?2 108 This was renewed interposition on the part of our issued during the a stale rehash of State Department press releases to administration. No practical measures were contemplated Wilson withdraw American troops, or move up the rescind martial law, in the treaty. Within Haiti the 1936 termination date stipulated base or shift responsiOccupation did little to broaden its political Calvin Coolidge, who bilities to Haitian subordinates. President thought little about Haiti, remarked: want to withdraw. We had some plans to withdraw. Of course, we there for the purpose of maintaining We have there a few marines-sent American interests, and, incidentally, peace and order and protecting also the Haitians. But the perhaps more than incidental, for protecting request that we continue the Government of Haiti sent a very strong occupation, and that we have done.1"4 and ill-informed. Several This statement was, at best, haphazard William H. King, George W. United States senators, especially continued to make sporadic attacks Norris, and William E. Borah, offered an amendment to the during the 1920s. King on occupation bill providing that no money be spent a 1922 military appropriation the Dominican Republic, and Nicarato maintain marines in Haiti, vote of 43 to 9.105 In general, gua, but the motion was defeated by United a States after the 1921-22 Haiti received little attention in the continued to sit on Haiti withreorganization, and the Occupation until the strikes and riots of 1929. out any spectacular developments --- Page 153 --- 4D From Faustin Wirkus and The United States fleet Dudley Taney, The White elaborate in (Garden King Cièy, of La Gonêve observance of protocol Port-au-Prince and harbor in 1917 for N.Y., 1931) Dartiguenave. One of the public diplomatic honors for a visit that featured markets is in the foreground. President Philippe Sudre The Bureau de Port at tomshouses were of Cayes. Custo the United States special interest bankers, and investors government, ties collected there because duimports constituted on the exports and of the revenue of the Haitian major part ernment, govCourtesy of Mrs. Virginia A, White --- Page 154 --- - A street scene in from the fields Fort-au-Prince about 1920, The Courtesy of Mrs. Virginia A. White The major export through item the city streets to the mill marrow-gatuige train hauled Haitians had long had was coffee, which was sold where it was refined for sugar cane close cultural and economic primarily to the French, with local use. ties. whom The National Palace, after the previous Fort-au-Prince, home of Haiti's Courtesy of Mrs. Virginia A, White palace was blown up in 1912; it presidents. This was completed building was begun during the occupation. Fort-au-Prince about 1920, The Courtesy of Mrs. Virginia A. White The major export through item the city streets to the mill marrow-gatuige train hauled Haitians had long had was coffee, which was sold where it was refined for sugar cane close cultural and economic primarily to the French, with local use. ties. whom The National Palace, after the previous Fort-au-Prince, home of Haiti's Courtesy of Mrs. Virginia A, White palace was blown up in 1912; it presidents. This was completed building was begun during the occupation. --- Page 155 --- I - - * of the National Geographic Society Photograph by Clifton Adams, courtesy fashions, and language tiles, furniture, of the elite of Haiti. The awnings, The lifestyle were French. home and family in the interior A peasant of the island about 1917 From World's Work Truth Magazine, Library courtesy of Sojourner --- Page 156 --- a A 12 A unit of the Haitian From World's Work Magazine, courtesy of army prior to United States Sojoumer Truth LAbrary intervention The Gendarmerie From World's Work Magazine, occupation d'Haiti, developed and officered courtesy of Sofourner Truth by United States marines LAbrary during the --- Page 157 --- courtesy From of World's Sofourner Work Magazine, President Dartiguenave Truth Librani courtesy From World's Work minister of foreign affairs (right) and his of Sojourner Truth Magazine, who signed the treaty Louis Borno, a Marine General Eli K. Cole Library the United. States. Borno between Haiti and city official of Hinche and (left) with guenave as succeeded DartiSecretary of the Assistant president in 1922. velt during Roosevelt's Navy Franklin D. Roose1917 visit to Haiti P * (front Colonel right), Littleton W. T. Waller, Commander Courtesy of Marine Corps Museum, who was to lead negotiating a caco with Haitian leaders in Marine Expeditionary Quantico revolt in 1919, is in the October, 1915, Forces in Haiti front row, third Charlemagne from the Peralte, right. --- Page 158 --- American Brigadier General John H. Russell, Haiti High Commistioner to Courtesy of Marine Corps Museum, Quantico / a S Alen under Prisoners the at the national penitentiary, Courtesy of Marine Corps supervision of marine officers Fort-au-Prince, of the making footgear Museum, for Quantico Gendarmerie d'Haiti the military --- Page 159 --- - W : * In 1921 tales of Marine From Literary Digest, courtesy of senatorial Corps atrocities in Haiti Rutgers Unicersity was met by investigation. demonstrators When the committee and Santo Library Your Congo?" "Shall carrying banners reached Domingo in resulted in a trayed in Haiti." The Haiti Be Your Belgium?" bearing "The such Port-au-Prince inscriptions as "Shall November, it committee reported in favor of American People Have Been Haiti Be continuing the occupation. BeR LISTEN SON! DO UNTO YOUR BROTHERS AS YOU'D HAV'EM DO UNTO YOU. SAWYP. A cartoon by Private Paul ner which appeared in the WoyshMagazine for April, 1917 Marines & se a I THR - MISSIONARY Courtesy U.S. Marine of Historical Corps, Dieiston, Washington --- Page 160 --- SAAN Unloersity Library Courtesy of Prinoston built in 1926, one of many govGarde d'Haiti, Port-au-Prince, Department of Public Works National Headquarters, erected by the Occupation's erment buildings - Pictorlal Section, Washington Courtesy of U.S. Marine Corps Combat with Haitian guide about 1919 Marine patrol --- Page 161 --- - Corps Combat Pictorial Section, Washington Courtesy of U.S. Marine two marines disguised as leader, after his assassination by to undermine antiCharlemagne Peralte, caco was circulated in an attempt Christ crucified, Haitians in 1919. This photograph the posture of the corpse suggested resistance; but to Haitians of Peralte's martyrdom. American enhanced the legend and the photograph lal Section, Washington Courtesy of U.S. Marine Corps Combat with Haitian guide about 1919 Marine patrol --- Page 161 --- - Corps Combat Pictorial Section, Washington Courtesy of U.S. Marine two marines disguised as leader, after his assassination by to undermine antiCharlemagne Peralte, caco was circulated in an attempt Christ crucified, Haitians in 1919. This photograph the posture of the corpse suggested resistance; but to Haitians of Peralte's martyrdom. American enhanced the legend and the photograph --- Page 162 --- c - he Students at work in the shop of the Service Courtesy of Princeton Uniceraity Technique's industrial school Library at Jacmel hesA Rural school at Carefour Ségur, Courtesy of one of many school Princeton Unioeratty Library buildings erected by the Occupation --- Page 163 --- Courtesy of Princeton Unioersity Library The wharf at Petit-Godve the before Ocand after improvements by of Public cupation's Department Works in 1928 Courtesy of Princeton Untoersity Library The River Grise irrigation system by before and after improvemnent sysThe original the Occupation. built by the French in colonial tem, Domingue, fell into disrepair St. after independence. - --- Page 164 --- Presidents Sténio Vincent Courtesy of U.S. Marine Corps Combat Cap-Haitien in 1934 and Franklin D. Roosevelt Pictorial Section, Washington during Roosevelt's goodwill visit to - The President's Courtesy of U.S. Marine Corps Combat upon its arrival Commission at for Study and Review of Pictorial Section, Washington pointed by President Port-au-Prince Hoover on February 28, Conditions in the withdraw from Haiti, to try to determine when 1930, The Forbes Republic of Haiti control-free elections arranged which the removal of the and how the United Commission, apStates withdrawal did were won American High States should not take place until decisively four by Haitian nationalists. Commissioner and for years later, But United --- Page 165 --- / Racial and Cultural Tensions The period from the 1922 financial and tion to the 1929 strikes and riots administrative reorganizability, and relative economic was a time of peace, political stacontinuity in the administration prosperity in Haiti. There was strong Russell and client-President of the occupation, with General and Haiti produced a series of Borno serving throughout the period, on the international coffee good coffee crops in years when prices the United States made market were high. During this with American a determined effort to indoctrinate Haitians period concepts of political morality, ciency, and to teach Haitians modern pragmatism, and effiskills through manual-technical agricultural and industrial were largely unsuccessful because education programs. These efforts which tended to undermine of racial and cultural prejudices disciple relationships. the development of effective masterInstead of modeling after many Haitians came to despise them. the Americans, Racism and awareness of black racial factors in Haitian social, origins had been important American intervention. White intellectual, and political life before the of skin pigmentation, had somatic norms, especially lightness mining social and economic remained status significant criteria in deterFrench colonial after the departure of the white elite of independent population in the early nineteenth century, and the Haiti persisted in copying French styles and to undermine of racial and cultural prejudices disciple relationships. the development of effective masterInstead of modeling after many Haitians came to despise them. the Americans, Racism and awareness of black racial factors in Haitian social, origins had been important American intervention. White intellectual, and political life before the of skin pigmentation, had somatic norms, especially lightness mining social and economic remained status significant criteria in deterFrench colonial after the departure of the white elite of independent population in the early nineteenth century, and the Haiti persisted in copying French styles and --- Page 166 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 its assertions of cultural social mannerisms as means of justifying self-conscious efforts to win sophistication and refinement. The cultural refinerespect by achieving a high level of white-European of black or African ment and the concomitant repudiation any in Haitian indeby a strong pride heritage were complemented The few white foreigners in pendence and national sovereignty. deference, and white travelers Haiti were not treated with especial and even superiority attitude of racial equality noted a prevailing with the servility of blacks in the United that contrasted sharply States." marines landed in 1915 they brought concepts When American that had not held sway in Haiti since the of racial discrimination driven out a hundred years before. At white French colonials were forces and the between the occupying first there was some contact attended social functions at elite Haitian elite. American officers and were received in elite clubs, danced with Haitian women, Butler later recalled homes. Gendarmerie Commandant Smedley Haitians had been readily how American reluctance to mingle with at the National Palace: overcome at a 1916 Gendarmerie ball given shied a little from the "When the American officers came in, they entirely belles; but, as the evening wore on, their shyness dusky wore off.": of white males American racial mores did not prohibit mixing interracial conwith either blacks or mulattoes, and in this case Butler, in his furthered by heavy drinking. viviality was apparently claimed that he counted fifteen American flamboyant autobiography, out on the grass of the palace officers in full-dress uniform sprawled courtyard the morning following the ball.* the early days of the Whatever racial harmony existed during wives and occupation came to an end with the arrival of American at the 1922 families in 1916.* An American businessman testifying Senate Hearings stated: the American officers had free and complete social Up to that time both in their families and in their intercourse with the Haitians, of the women of the occupation this peaceclubs. . . With the coming upset, the women having a natural ful state of affairs was completely and method of thinking, to dancing aversion, due to their former training the ball.* the early days of the Whatever racial harmony existed during wives and occupation came to an end with the arrival of American at the 1922 families in 1916.* An American businessman testifying Senate Hearings stated: the American officers had free and complete social Up to that time both in their families and in their intercourse with the Haitians, of the women of the occupation this peaceclubs. . . With the coming upset, the women having a natural ful state of affairs was completely and method of thinking, to dancing aversion, due to their former training --- Page 167 --- RACIAL AND CULTURAL TENSIONS the intercourse with the Haitians, men or women; and general social objecting for the same reason." husbands of these women also strongly intercourse between white women and The taboo against social axiom of American with black blood was a long-standing Gunnar anyone In his classic study An American Dilemma (1944), racism. intermarriage and sexual intercourse Myrdal ranked "the bar against tenet of American racial involving white women" as the cardinal sysa comprehensive discrimination." 6 This tenet was supported by from contact barriers which isolated white women tem of interracial resulted in the general social with blacks and, in its broadest aspects, segregation of the races. Americans instituted Following the arrival of the white women, American society, Crow racial segregation in Haiti. In polite with the Jim the explanation that this racial segregation was justified by became socially selfarrival of the women the American colony "snobbishness" but sufficient and that segregation did not indicate backgrounds. One reflection of different cultural and linguistic was a that "I can't see why they American officer remarked to a traveler as I do with wouldn't have a better time with their crowd, just to be exmuch too systematic mine." >> 7 Segregation was, however, accepted, mutually agreeplained simply as the result of casually interests. The American in cultural and social able divergences the social center of the American colony, was Club, which was the only blacks closed to all Haitians, even the client-president; the Haitian waiters." allowed to participate in club functions social were clubs to Haitians, elite After the closing of the American those Americans, chiefly civilclubs continued for a time to receive with Haitians, but ians, who chose to continue their associations racial hostility intensified. this courtesy was largely withdrawn as insisted on traveler observed that military personnel be An American while American businessmen tended to strict racial segregation, toward the Haitians: more gracious majority of our officers in Haiti are By chance or design the great shun but the most unavoidable interSoutherners, and they naturally any the chief bones of contention course with the natives. This is one of civilians engaged in between the forces of occupation and the American color-line, contend that the business. The latter, while still keeping a to continue their associations racial hostility intensified. this courtesy was largely withdrawn as insisted on traveler observed that military personnel be An American while American businessmen tended to strict racial segregation, toward the Haitians: more gracious majority of our officers in Haiti are By chance or design the great shun but the most unavoidable interSoutherners, and they naturally any the chief bones of contention course with the natives. This is one of civilians engaged in between the forces of occupation and the American color-line, contend that the business. The latter, while still keeping a --- Page 168 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED should be treated more like human beings. They natives of education the indifference to industrial advancement, deplore the narrow viewpoint, of the officers, and the latter retalithe occasional schoolboy priggishness business man as synonymous with moneyate by considering the term to the natives for the sake of trade." grabbing and willingness to cater between the marines and the small Irrespective of differences effective racial segreganumber of American businessmen in Haiti, facet of the occupaestablished as an important tion became firmly concentrated around tion. The American colony in Port-au-Prince were created for special Catholic masses its own neighborhood, hotels that catered to American guests adopted Americans, and local Jim Crow standards." those involving white Overt incidents of racial hostility, especially and mutual reinforced the tendency toward segregation women, attended by all official Port-au-Prince resentment. At a reception of the Navy Roosevelt in during the visit of Assistant Secretary with Haitian women but January, 1917, American men danced with Haitian men. One of RooseAmerican women refused to dance few American women companions noted that "very velt's traveling the began, most of them were inside of the house after dancing outside. Many of them had walking or sitting in the large gardens into the dancing rooms been forbidden by their husbands to come incidents had 99 11 This and other awkward until the Haitians gone. and American women, such involving contact between Haitian men to American lady guests Haitian offering their arms as gentlemen the breakdown of social relations durand being rejected, hastened Edna Taft, an American ing the early years of the occupation." book A Puritan in Voodoo-Land white woman whose remarkable of racism at the time of Ameri- (1938) illustrates the pervasiveness color line mixing socially with withdrawal in 1934, broke the by can personal trauma and guilt. Miss Taft Haitian men and experienced father would turn over in his grave and recalled warnings that her and the palms of my hands were remembered "trembling all over, and shaking hands with wet with cold perspiration" on first dancing Haitian men. 18 with Haitians were severely limited by the White female contacts in 1916 and 1917. Subsequent implementation of racial segregation 1938) illustrates the pervasiveness color line mixing socially with withdrawal in 1934, broke the by can personal trauma and guilt. Miss Taft Haitian men and experienced father would turn over in his grave and recalled warnings that her and the palms of my hands were remembered "trembling all over, and shaking hands with wet with cold perspiration" on first dancing Haitian men. 18 with Haitians were severely limited by the White female contacts in 1916 and 1917. Subsequent implementation of racial segregation --- Page 169 --- RACIAL AND CULTURAL TENSIONS of the color line, such as the annual stag New Year's transgressions for Americans, rarely involved party given by the client-president isolation of American women, white women." Despite the social Haitians remained a threat possible breaches of racial etiquette by especially with the to the peace and tranquillity of the occupation, the strikes and riots of intensification of hatred that accompanied and American chargé 1929. In August, 1930, the brigade commander describing a grave reports to the State Department sent alarming incident involving an "insult to a white and "unprecedented" Haitian returning from a political woman" that occurred when a marine sergeant by the arm grabbed the daughter of a meeting manhandled by a marine corporal. This potentially and was, in turn, hushed up by American authorities, explosive incident was carefully the safety and morale of the who considered it a serious threat to about shielding their occupation." Extreme American sensitivity all the more offensive to the women from contact with Haitians was about livbecause American men showed no compunction Haitians mistresses." ing openly with Haitian the sanctity of American women, In addition to difficulties over Haitians and Americans was another source of open clashes between enlisted men on liberty. Drinkdrunkenness by marines, especially since the early years of the ing and whoring had been problems some Haitians to render occupation, and marine rowdiness inspired Moindre Contrôle" (use withthe initials U.S.M.C. into "Use Sans Mal Costumé" (a sloppy out the least control) and "Un Salaud observers noted that marines bum). A number of American civilian about their cavalier treatunder the influence of alcohol bragged and "gooks," and ment of Haitians, disparaged them as "niggers" Haitian Finanoffensive to pride." otherwise behaved in a manner the breakdown of social cial Adviser W. W. Cumberland ascribed and improprieties relations with the Haitian elite to boisterousness to have joint social by marine officers: <6 . . when there were efforts too much and ebullient officer would drink a little activities some which would offend the Haitians. then would say or do something Cumberland recalled that after Then we were all in trouble." contacts were "largely confned these unfortunate incidents social might say to formal and official functions . . where you behave themof officers who knew how to only a select group breakdown of social cial Adviser W. W. Cumberland ascribed and improprieties relations with the Haitian elite to boisterousness to have joint social by marine officers: <6 . . when there were efforts too much and ebullient officer would drink a little activities some which would offend the Haitians. then would say or do something Cumberland recalled that after Then we were all in trouble." contacts were "largely confned these unfortunate incidents social might say to formal and official functions . . where you behave themof officers who knew how to only a select group --- Page 170 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 to a would be in attendance and incidents were reduced selves author noted that the elite Club minimum." 1 19 A visiting American Americans in military uniBellevue had a standing rule forbidding enter its doors which dated back to a 'socially objectionable" form to Commandant Butler early in the incident involving Gendarmerie occupation. a Americans and Haitians, which usuOvert altercations between Haitian elite, became ally involved marines and the hypersensitive and measures taken less frequent with effective racial segregation and enforce commanders to seclude the marine garrison by marine and tact. In 1927 Marine Corps Commandant standards of courtesy that there were "very few, if Lejeune wrote the State Department officers of the Marine points of contact with the Haitiens" by any, the policy established by High ComBrigade, who were following as much in the missioner Russell "to keep the military occupation in 99 20 The marine garrison was concentrated background as possible:" and Cap Haitien and served the two major cities of Port-au-Prince the Gendarmerie in times exclusively as a reserve force to back up incidents with the local of trouble. Marines were instructed to avoid were subject to sepopulation, and those who mistreated Haitians vere penalties. 21 led to the isolation The establishment of Jim Crow segregation who crossed the color line and to an anti-Ameriof those individuals elite. Americans who associated with can reaction by the Haitian and ridicule by the American Haitians were subjected to ostracism social contacts with conservaEdna Taft related that "My colony. natives shocked my American friends. . . . The tive, upper-class and whom I entertained felt keenly Americans who entertained me elite." The few American ashamed of my interest in the dusky their married Haitian women were treated as outcasts by men who officer who married the niece of clientfellow countrymen. A marine his former fellows for having President Borno was denounced by of racial the service." >9 28 Because of the perverse workings "disgraced Madame Placide, an American white woman who prejudice in Haiti, ostracized by the American colony married a Haitian, was not only head of the American military mission to the a Colonel Robert D. Heinl, Jr., first marine to be elected to the Club Bellevue Duvalier government in 1959, was the 139. Heinl letter to me, July 20, 1970. since the Butler incident. Seabrook, denounced by of racial the service." >9 28 Because of the perverse workings "disgraced Madame Placide, an American white woman who prejudice in Haiti, ostracized by the American colony married a Haitian, was not only head of the American military mission to the a Colonel Robert D. Heinl, Jr., first marine to be elected to the Club Bellevue Duvalier government in 1959, was the 139. Heinl letter to me, July 20, 1970. since the Butler incident. Seabrook, --- Page 171 --- RACIAL AND CULTURAL TENSIONS with the Haitians for having lowered herself, but also lost caste increased social prestige by virtue of while her husband enjoyed Faced with American racism, the his marriage to a white woman." Americans from most elite drew a retaliatory color line, excluding social relations with other Haitian social life while still maintaining of ostracism, exThe elite set up its own system white foreigners. and Haitian families cluding members of the client-government with marines from elite society." that fraternized marked by both emulation of The complex elite racial ideology, included disdain for Ameriwhite characteristics and intense pride, servile. The who were looked down upon as being can blacks, informed the State Department in Haitian minister to Washington Haitians looked down upon American 1924 that even poor black by direct contact with American blacks. This attitude, strengthened President Harding from rewarding racial discrimination, prevented and resulted in the black Republicans with Haitian appointments, previously held posting of whites to Haitian diplomatic positions in Haiti was all white, by blacks." Thus the American presence blacks. the Marine Corps at that time did not accept since remained in effect throughout the OCWhile racial segregation racial hostilities was progressively ameliocupation, the problem of to of tactful and sympathetic personnel rated by the appointment Commissioner Russell pursued a positions in the occupation. High friction, and his wife was one policy designed to eliminate who racial went out of her way to be cordial of several American women number of Americans who treated to Haitians. There were always a and some, such as GenHaitians with respect and consideration, Commander Louis Mcdarmerie Commandant and later Brigade local customs and cultiCarty Little, made special efforts to observe of the office of high relations." After the abolition vate friendly aftermath of the 1929 uprisings, successive State commissioner in the tolerant, and Brigade Department ministers were conspicuously retained for Haitian duty beCommander Little was specifically American author with cause he was liked by the Haitians. In 1928 an was not characteregalitarian biases observed that the occupation of natives off sideized by Prussian swagger and the pushing racial and walks, but rather by an attitude of "kindly" superiority aloofness." to observe of the office of high relations." After the abolition vate friendly aftermath of the 1929 uprisings, successive State commissioner in the tolerant, and Brigade Department ministers were conspicuously retained for Haitian duty beCommander Little was specifically American author with cause he was liked by the Haitians. In 1928 an was not characteregalitarian biases observed that the occupation of natives off sideized by Prussian swagger and the pushing racial and walks, but rather by an attitude of "kindly" superiority aloofness." --- Page 172 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 was by no means The American attitude of racial superiority prejudice on the simply a reflection of ignorance or exceptional literature of the period The scientific part of occupation personnel. that blacks were inherently inferior to amply supported the idea literature. Lothrop Stoddard, whites, as did contemporary popular White World-Suin his book The Rising Tide of Color Against when left to himself, as in premacy (1921) noted that "the negroe ways, >2 and argued Haiti and Liberia, rapidly reverts to his ancestral would be likely to assert that "No one except a doctrinaire liberal right to indeIslanders had an imprescriptible that the Andaman owed its independence only to a pendence, or that Haiti, which forever remain a sovereign-interturn in European politics, should national nuisance." >> 29 writing for the scholarly A University of California professor, Haitian Historical Review in 1927, compared thick Hispanio-American and observed that "the Haitian lacks the and American blacks of his brother in the north" but lips and nostrils and rolling eyes 92 80 traits of the negro type. displayed the same "happy also subscribed to prevailing racial High-ranking military officers An admiral who had and concepts of black inferiority. stereotypes of Santo Domingo and administrative served as military governor in Haiti compared Haitians with commander of the occupation blacks in the American South: contact with a superior The people of Haiti have had no immediate of the United States have cultivation and intelligence such as the negroes traits of negro character had since their emancipation. . . . The same in Haiti, both good and bad; that are found in the United States exist in evidence in Haiti than in but I consider that the bad traits are more better control. the United States, where they are under General Russell observed that "The corpulent In his reminiscences states is rarely seen and the strapping 'mammy' of our southern States still less frequently." In as- "buck' of Africa and the United Russell stated, "The elite sessing Haitian cultural achievements, evolution but as a result of racial intercame not as result of racial from 1919 to 1921 later mixture.' >> 82 The Gendarmerie commandant officials had arrived with recalled that one of the American treaty of the Negro Mind" from which a book entitled "The Development observed that "The corpulent In his reminiscences states is rarely seen and the strapping 'mammy' of our southern States still less frequently." In as- "buck' of Africa and the United Russell stated, "The elite sessing Haitian cultural achievements, evolution but as a result of racial intercame not as result of racial from 1919 to 1921 later mixture.' >> 82 The Gendarmerie commandant officials had arrived with recalled that one of the American treaty of the Negro Mind" from which a book entitled "The Development --- Page 173 --- RACIAL AND CULTURAL TENSIONS elite." much to the annoyance of the Haitian he quoted frequently, well aware of the racial problems in The State Department was that "As a rule the foreigner does not Haiti. Russell reported in 1919 true of the American, mix with the Haitien and this is especially in a business way. 99 84 who has little or nothing to do with them except Hoover to investigate Commission, sent by President The Forbes of the 1929 strikes and riots, rethe occupation in the aftermath lie behind many of the difficulties ported that "Race antipathies and civil forces have met in which the United States military Division of Latin American AfHaiti."a In 1927 an officer in the fairs observed that whether accidentally or not I do not know, most of the Marine Officers, between the educated from the South and do not differentiate come of color. In general, the AmeriHaitian mulatto and any other gentleman that any necessity Officers I found to be incapable of understanding can even on the best of Haitians. Any genexisted for making an impression this would be very unpopular eral officer who issued an order on subject the matter fully with Colonel and would be considered a fool. I discussed in Haiti. [Myers), Commander of the Brigade John Meyers themselves were not devoid of conState Department officers Secretary of State Francis temporary racial prejudices. Assistant Senate Finance Committee in White refused to testify before the Haitian loan policy was attacked 1932 when the State Department's White remarked, "I had no idea by a visiting Haitian nationalist; on the stand."s of getting into an argument with a coon made renewed efforts After the 1929 uprisings the United States the American chargé minimize racial friction. In August, 1930, to that most incidents of racial intolerance at Port-au-Prince reported rather than Americans, and that were being manifested by Haitians of the American cordiality would prevail 'given the watchfulness of color prejudice on the Government to prevent any manifestation for Haitian political agitapart of American officials in Haiti," except unfortunate incidents which tion, which was "reinforced by certain of the Intervention.' 988 occurred during the early months officials who would be The advisability of recruiting occupation out the 1922 to the Haitians had been pointed by effort "sympathetic" the Wilson administration no special Senate Inquiry. During , and that were being manifested by Haitians of the American cordiality would prevail 'given the watchfulness of color prejudice on the Government to prevent any manifestation for Haitian political agitapart of American officials in Haiti," except unfortunate incidents which tion, which was "reinforced by certain of the Intervention.' 988 occurred during the early months officials who would be The advisability of recruiting occupation out the 1922 to the Haitians had been pointed by effort "sympathetic" the Wilson administration no special Senate Inquiry. During --- Page 174 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 personnel to Haiti, indeed, virtually was made to send unprejudiced officials were appointed from the all of the leading civilian treaty prevalent: the Deep South where racial prejudice was especially Louisiana head of Wilson's Customs Service was a former had been parish a of the Customs Service clerk; the second-in-charge Financial Adviser McIlhenny was from Mississippi customs collector; of Public Instruction was a former Louisiana; the Superintendent representative, schoolteacher; and the State Department Louisiana from Louisiana." 39 Irrespective of their Minister Bailly-Blanchard, was related to political obligations, geographic origins, which probably selected with a view to their Wilson's appointments were generally who had hoped to reprofessional qualifications. Unlike Harding, Wilson specifiblack with Haitian appointments, ward Republicans should involve consideracally stipulated that treaty appointments of McIlhenny as financial tions beyond politics, although the posting 40 adviser was questionable in this respect. marine both number of observers believed that the contingent, A administration and thereafter, consisted predomiduring the Wilson United States trade commissioner, after nantly of Southerners." A businessman in frank conversation with an American an extremely 1922, reported: that the bulk of the men in charge of policing, saniIt would appear drawn from those States where the race tation and other duties were Texas, etc.-- question has always been a matter of delicacy-Louisiana, the black man was imported at and that the Southern attitude towards natives who might have the beginning and has operated to alienate many been useful. G. Leyburn, in his book The Haitian American scholar James charge that the United People (1941), made the unsubstantiated from Southern states to Haiti States had deliberately sent marines "on the theory that they would, in the early days of the occupation know how to handle' with Negroes, from long acquaintance While the 1922 Senate Inquiry them." 48 This charge is dubious. officer be charged with specifically recommended that a marine thereby inthe backgrounds of all men sent to Haiti," scrutinizing selection policy might be administratively dicating that a deliberate burn, in his book The Haitian American scholar James charge that the United People (1941), made the unsubstantiated from Southern states to Haiti States had deliberately sent marines "on the theory that they would, in the early days of the occupation know how to handle' with Negroes, from long acquaintance While the 1922 Senate Inquiry them." 48 This charge is dubious. officer be charged with specifically recommended that a marine thereby inthe backgrounds of all men sent to Haiti," scrutinizing selection policy might be administratively dicating that a deliberate --- Page 175 --- RACIAL AND CULTURAL TENSIONS I have found no evidence of any deliberate selection policy feasible, records. It is true that several prominent marines, in Marine Corps Commissioner Russell, were notably General Waller and High Commandant Butler, Southerners, but others were not. Gendarmerie Pennsylvania Quaker for instance, was a member of a distinguished Ann Hurst of Wellesley family. In a 1964 undergraduate term paper, marine officers serving in College investigated the proportion been of born in Southern states and Haiti from 1916 to 1932 who had Southerners in the total United found that the mean percentage of both the of Southern was than percentage States population greater and the percentage of Southern officers officers in the Marine Corps deals exclusively with officers and serving in Haiti." Hurst's study of enlisted men, who, as does not delve into the important question contact with the Haitians. officers of the Gendarmerie, were most in 1921 and 1924 show that statistics for periods in Marine recruiting for the corps as a whole were not disproSouthern enlistments whether or not there was a disproportionately large.* 46 In any case, marines in Haiti, the fact portionately large number of Southern indicates that Southobservers felt that this was the case that many Southern racial codes were conspicuous. erners and severely disruptive in themselves, were comRacial prejudices, Americans tended to resent the plemented by cultural prejudices. of the elite, and the elite aristocratic French cultural sophistication materialistic Amerilooked down on the uncultured, pragmatically on the scale of elite Technical expertise did not rank high cans. oriented toward polite learning. In 1930 Amerivalues, which were the State Department with Stuart Grummon provided can Chargé on Haitian "Latin" mentality: the following commentary has a deep sense of the value of In general, while the Anglo-Saxon of democratic government to social organization and of the obligation for the social welfare of the masses, assume a large share of responsibility conviction of the value of democratic and has in addition a profound the is apt to scorn democracy government, the Latin mind, on contrary, and educational welfare of and neglect activities looking to the health excels in collective action is apt the masses. . . The Anglo-Saxon, characteristic who of intense individualism to be impatient with the Haitian The action of the Haitian, in inherited from the French regime. . general, while the Anglo-Saxon of democratic government to social organization and of the obligation for the social welfare of the masses, assume a large share of responsibility conviction of the value of democratic and has in addition a profound the is apt to scorn democracy government, the Latin mind, on contrary, and educational welfare of and neglect activities looking to the health excels in collective action is apt the masses. . . The Anglo-Saxon, characteristic who of intense individualism to be impatient with the Haitian The action of the Haitian, in inherited from the French regime. . --- Page 176 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED emotion with the Latin in general, is in the main directed by common which in the main dictates the action of the Anglorather than by reason, Saxon. 47 Russell expressed a similar view when he reHigh Commissioner that "Haitian mentality only recogported during the 1929 uprisings is nizes force, and appeal to reason and logic unthinkable." with and was American hostility to Latin cultural traits merged In 1917 Brigade from racial prejudice. sometimes indistinguishable Commander Cole stated: who constitute the majority The Negroes of mixed type [mulattoes), have the general characteristics of of educated people and politicians, praise, excitable, changeable, such people the world over-vain, double-faced. loving Many of them are highly edubeyond belief illogical, and must always be doubted." cated and polished, but their sincerity on the part of many Americans to There was also a tendency who were looked identify all Haitians with the black peasantry, Cole remarked that "fully down upon as ignorant and uncivilized. and ignorant beyond de75 percent are of a very low mentality and a Haitian scription," > and "No matter how much veneer and polish under strain have, he is absolutely savage under the skin vicious Amerimay s? 50 Haitians were caught in a web of reverts to type." The several facets from which there was no escape. can prejudices racist hostility to blacks, disof American prejudice, specifically culture, and condescension paragement of "Latin" and Continental and reinforced each toward illiterate peasants, were interrelated communicaother to form a formidable barrier to Haitian-American and at all levels of the occupation. tion cooperation Americans and the Haitian elite was The cultural clash between Americans, who subscribed to all the more exacerbated because the were repulsed political ideologies of democracy and egalitarianism, fundamental to the social by the very concept of elitism that was Haiti. This revulsion, of course, and economic position of the elite in and cultural elitism. During ignored the paradox of American racial military commanders the early years of the occupation American the aristocratic trenchant in this respect, scorning were especially affection for the common pomposity of the elite while expressing Americans and the Haitian elite was The cultural clash between Americans, who subscribed to all the more exacerbated because the were repulsed political ideologies of democracy and egalitarianism, fundamental to the social by the very concept of elitism that was Haiti. This revulsion, of course, and economic position of the elite in and cultural elitism. During ignored the paradox of American racial military commanders the early years of the occupation American the aristocratic trenchant in this respect, scorning were especially affection for the common pomposity of the elite while expressing --- Page 177 --- RACIAL AND CULTURAL TENSIONS rooted in ideals of democratic people. This attitude was firmly tendency based on egalitarianism. It also indicated an escapist level of equality, and American inability to cope with blacks on a contacts in which the corresponding preference for those interracial in all reby Western standards, were clearly superior Americans, Commandant Butler, for instance, expressed spects. Gendarmerie that wears vici kid shoes with long disdain for the "1 per cent but was very fond of his "ape pointed toes and celluloid collars," "faithful slave" to the man" black servant Antoine, who was a toward the peasants was The American attitude Butler children." officer who served in the back often extremely patronizing. A marine version at least, was kind and country and, according to his own and was well liked in return, even affectionate toward the Haitians brain cannot rise in life's said, "A man who is born with a semi-ape's percent of the That was the kind of brain ninety competition. Haitian peasants seemed to have."s soon to be appointed high In 1921 Brigade Commander Russell, sincere concern for Haiti, but commissioner, stated that he had a the uneducated lie entirely, however, with huge that "sympathies the action of an inappremass of Haitiens who have by despicable for years in a bondage ciable few of their countrymen been kept that is akin to slavery." 58 programs were American educational and economic development undermine the privileged all designed to favor the peasants and of the Division of Latin Ameriposition of the elite. In 1926 the chief that "The aim Affairs wrote Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg can of Haiti has been to beneft the country as a of our Occupation The class which whole, and especially the peasants. . . . political hostile debarred from the spoils of office is consequently has been whereas the great mass of the people is favorable to the Occupation, Borno subscribed to and friendly to it." 64 Client-President strongly class system policy of breaking down the established the American crime" of elite exploitation of the imand eliminating the "social also enhanced the poverished masses. 55 Ironically, the occupation mulattoes were political position of the elite; under the Americans, for the first time installed in the presidency and major Cabinet posts twelve eleven of the preceding in many years. Before Dartiguenave, contradiction was probably presidents had been black. The apparent favorable to the Occupation, Borno subscribed to and friendly to it." 64 Client-President strongly class system policy of breaking down the established the American crime" of elite exploitation of the imand eliminating the "social also enhanced the poverished masses. 55 Ironically, the occupation mulattoes were political position of the elite; under the Americans, for the first time installed in the presidency and major Cabinet posts twelve eleven of the preceding in many years. Before Dartiguenave, contradiction was probably presidents had been black. The apparent --- Page 178 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 for well-educated collaborators, the result of American preference black strongmen who had been as opposed to the less-polished choices may also have been influprominent in the past. American this would be further evidence enced by white somatic norms. If so, for element in the avowed special sympathy pointing to the escapist replacing the collaborators the black masses. With elite nationalists of Haitian politics conafter the 1929 uprisings, mulatto domination tinued until the "black revolution" of 1946. egalitarian disparity between the democratic, The ideological elite, compounded by previously Americans and the aristocratic further racial and cultural antagonisms, was complicated mentioned that the elite and the occupaby the different levels of sophistication cultural tradiwithin their respective tion personnel exemplified observed that the elite were tions. One American woman journalist man and his wife layers in culture above the army or navy "so many must feel ashamed of his country's reprethat the visiting American officer after several drinks asks him, when an sentatives-empecially 'How do you like the big niggers?" not characterized by The marine officer corps of this period was finesse attained in later the higher levels of education and cultural elite looked down on The cosmopolitan, culturally refined years. and crass materialism. In 1930 American American lack of manners that members of the elite were Chargé Stuart Grummon reported nature and confident that of the American practical "contemptuous them in a distinctly their own suavity and politeness . . placed practical-minded Amerisuperior position to the average eminently appear- >> 57 Minister Bailly-Blanchard's can. Acts such as American attire and Financial Ading at the National Palace dressed in sports unwitting refusal to blatant and apparently viser Cumberland's French custom of the visiting dignitary paying first follow the polite offended the sensibilities of the proud call on the local dignitary American lack of and formal elite." The elite likewise deprecated of foreign lansavoir-faire, as exemplified by American ignorance wrote Secretary The chairman of the 1922 Senate Inquiry not a guages. that he was "amazed to find in Haiti single of State Hughes or Marine Corps who spoke officer of the United States Navy 59 American rowdiness French with perfect accent and fluency." and apparently viser Cumberland's French custom of the visiting dignitary paying first follow the polite offended the sensibilities of the proud call on the local dignitary American lack of and formal elite." The elite likewise deprecated of foreign lansavoir-faire, as exemplified by American ignorance wrote Secretary The chairman of the 1922 Senate Inquiry not a guages. that he was "amazed to find in Haiti single of State Hughes or Marine Corps who spoke officer of the United States Navy 59 American rowdiness French with perfect accent and fluency." --- Page 179 --- RACIAL AND CULTURAL TENSIONS also offended the elite, as when an elite piano recital given by guests sitting in the garden at were bombarded a graduate of the Paris by rocks thrown from the Conservatory a drunken marine officer. 60 Such neighboring dwelling by animosities, were incidents, given the various other ability of alcohol in magnified Haiti out of proportion. The abundant availin the United States at a time when Prohibition was in force rowdiness. Despite tended to aggravate the problem of marine during the numerous indignities which Haitians suffered haughtiness; occupation, many of them maintained their one elite lady remarked pride and the Americans had to a 1934 French visitor that copied Haitian rather than the other fashions, imported from France, The overall Haitian way around, far reaching in its reaction to the occupation was complex and comed the American consequences. At the outset, some Haitians weleconomic intervention as a means of ending chaos, and a small minority of the elite political and ing to collaborate with the Americans were always willby client-goverments" 62 The participating in successive shock of American intervention majority, however, were hostile. The to the coming of the was cataclysmic for the elite, Prior social Americans, their commanding position had been unchallenged; the elite economic and tocracy which arrogantly dominated the constituted an aristion, political advantages, masses in terms of educawealth, and economic were all the more complacent in their privilege. The elite lege because Haiti was isolated from exercise of aristocratic privielite, for local purposes, the the outside world, making the of black political masters of all creation. The dominance alter the social and strongmen qualified but did not fundamentally economic hierarchy. This lege was rudely shattered by the idyllic world of privican patterns of racial Americans, who, practicing Amerimulattoes and blacks discrimination, did not differentiate or between educated and between down upon all Haitians, irrespective of illiterate, but looked and degree of admixture of white blood Under American achievement, as simply "Negroes" or - 63 rule, the elite was not only "niggers." Jim Crow racial discrimination subjected to humiliating their privileged by white Americans but also lost dent American position as the dominant group in Haiti to the resicolony. The elite were confronted with the realiza- patterns of racial Americans, who, practicing Amerimulattoes and blacks discrimination, did not differentiate or between educated and between down upon all Haitians, irrespective of illiterate, but looked and degree of admixture of white blood Under American achievement, as simply "Negroes" or - 63 rule, the elite was not only "niggers." Jim Crow racial discrimination subjected to humiliating their privileged by white Americans but also lost dent American position as the dominant group in Haiti to the resicolony. The elite were confronted with the realiza- --- Page 180 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 in the face of American power and their tion of their own ineptitude national affairs in such a way as to proved inability to manage in the first place. have prevented the occupation and limitations and The forced realization of their own failings culture left educated the pressures of daily exposure to American values of intellectual crisis. Suave Continental Haitians in a state situation. All the old bases of elite were clearly irrelevant in the new identification with white French pride and self-respect, most notably black culture, were undermined culture and condescension toward to attack elite culby the occupation. Haitian intellectuals began the American interventural values and social attitudes shortly after Price-Mars's La Vocation tion, the most incisive effort being Jean and the irresponsible, which described how why de Télite (1919), effective national leaderself-centered elite had failed to provide because the intervention ship. The failure was especially apparent period of elite intelhad taken place in the midst of an impressive sought to replace disSome Haitians now lectual accomplishments. idealism with American pragmatism, materialcredited Continental Client-President Borno was an adism, and technical efficiency. of American values was, howvocate of this approach. Adaptation intellectuals because of American ever, repulsive to most Haitian racial and cultural bigotry. among common reaction to the occupation, especially A more was to reject both the effete emulayounger Haitian intellectuals, culture of the Amerition of French culture and the new pragmatic in black and African oricans in favor of seeking national identity based their pride and self-respect gins. Educated Haitians who had to be scorned and hucareful emulation of white culture, only on the white American invaders, now began miliated as "Negroes" by cultural heritage. New intellectual to search for an indigenous black Thaitianisme, and movements, known variously as Tindigénisme, and glorified black emphasized Haitian ethnography Tafricanisme, studies, notably Price-Mars's pioneer folk culture. Ethnographic investigated and romanticized work Ainsi parla Yoncle (1928), and, by tracing Haitian Haitian folklore, religion, and language demonstrated that blacks origins to advanced civilizations in Africa, studies by Haitian intelhad a history of their own. Many of these recognized that Haiti was lectuals of the génération de Toccupation aitianisme, and movements, known variously as Tindigénisme, and glorified black emphasized Haitian ethnography Tafricanisme, studies, notably Price-Mars's pioneer folk culture. Ethnographic investigated and romanticized work Ainsi parla Yoncle (1928), and, by tracing Haitian Haitian folklore, religion, and language demonstrated that blacks origins to advanced civilizations in Africa, studies by Haitian intelhad a history of their own. Many of these recognized that Haiti was lectuals of the génération de Toccupation --- Page 181 --- RACIAL AND CULTURAL TENSIONS facets but emphasized that African a mixed culture with European basic attitudes and characteristics predominated in determining ways of thinking. 84 folk culture was also manifest in the Interest in ethnography and to the occupation. Prior to reaction of Haitian poets and novelists had imitated French the American intervention Haitian writers romantic and idealistic topics. literary styles and dealt mainly with often called "la littérature The literary reaction to the occupation, featuring the Haitian engagée, >> had a strong social orientation, This problack literature and his African and black heritage. peasant manifestations of the world revolutionary was one of the earliest Aimé Césaire and Jeanphenomenon which the Martinican poet French West 65 In his article "The Paul Sartre labeled "négritude." (1961), G. R. Coulthard traces Indian Background of 'Négritude" of Haiti: e in the roots of négritude to the American occupation the first prise de conscience, Haiti is to be found the first awareness, and it is the unbroken continuity of the Negro in the white world, that forces the conclusion that to of the theme in Haitian literature of négritude grew out large extent, historically, the concept a very situation. 99 66 of the Haitian about the occupation stressed American Haitian novels written villain of Stephen Alexis' Le Nègre racism and vulgarity. The Seaton, is probably a take-off on Masqué (1933), Major Smedley the fictional character Smedley Marine Major Smedley Butler; Haitians and drives Seaton is pictured as a crude racist who despises La Blanche Cadillac automobile." 67 Virgile Valcin's a dazzling girl who passes for white, Négresse (1934) describes a Haitian but is abanand then has a baby daughter, marries an American, when the American husband finds out doned along with the baby who is still attracted to that she is really a mulatto; the husband, after the divorce. 68 the girl offers to set her up as his mistress sentiments of interliterature of the period also expressed "Engagée" white oppression and a Marxistnational black solidarity against lower classes. 69 The leading oriented sympathy for the Haitian Roumain, founded a fledgling Haitian novelist of the period, Jacques Communist party in 1934. also included a certain The Haitian reaction to the occupation that undertaken by the amount of active political resistance, such as baby who is still attracted to that she is really a mulatto; the husband, after the divorce. 68 the girl offers to set her up as his mistress sentiments of interliterature of the period also expressed "Engagée" white oppression and a Marxistnational black solidarity against lower classes. 69 The leading oriented sympathy for the Haitian Roumain, founded a fledgling Haitian novelist of the period, Jacques Communist party in 1934. also included a certain The Haitian reaction to the occupation that undertaken by the amount of active political resistance, such as --- Page 182 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1984 by but overt resistance was effectively suppressed Union Patriotique, During the 1920s Haitian the Occupation until the 1929 uprisings. centered around local newspolitical opposition to the occupation and frequently jailed, and also papers, whose editors were promptly complaints about the occupation included several attempts to bring of Nations." 70 before international bodies such as the League who neither collaboThere were some Haitian political activists but simply expressed rated with the occupation nor opposed it, a 1929 desecrafrustration and contempt. A marine officer reported tion of the Dessalines statue in Port-au-Prince as follows: [sic] statue affair has brought The investigation into the Dessaline's which involves the younger class of out another side of Haitien politics to 22 years, are ANTI-EVERYTHING, Haitien. These people, mostly aged Their up attitude is strictly anti all that even Dessalines [a national hero]. of Haitien politics. Their claim might have caused the present condition because, had they not is that their fathers and forefathers done be in wrong, the condition it is today. They done wrong, the Republic would not the opposition and the Occuare against their parents, the Government, of the Younger people's leagues of pation. . . Such is the sentiment Haiti." raised the possibility that marines on Subsequent information the statue rather than nihilistic liberty might have desecrated described above indicates the Haitian youths, but the attitude people after fifteen years serious disaffection of some Haitian young was written just four The above report of American occupation. months before the 1929 student strikes. which acted as barThe various racial and cultural antagonisms by mundane Haitian-American cooperation were augmented riers to military occupations. Haitians hostilities attendant to most foreign to the occupation resented being ruled by foreigners, and resistance and patriotism. rallied around the central theme of nationalism took over the most Haitians also resented the fact that Americans themselves. The American expensive houses and neighborhoods for best of town, and in Port-au-Prince was located in the part colony Americans lived at Cayes a was known locally the street on which social lives row. 92 72 Americans enjoyed pleasant as "millionaires' e Also known as Les Cayes and Aux Cayes. --- Page 183 --- RACIAL AND CULTURAL TENSIONS and could afford high standards of living. A 1927 Department of Commerce pamphlet stated that the "average" American family in Haiti employed four servants." Marines and their families, especially enlisted men who would have been relatively poor in the context of contemporary United States society, were the most affluent social stratum in Haiti. Americans who worked for the civilian branches of the occupation were paid higher salaries than were Haitian employees who did comparable work; an American office worker in the Service Technique was paid $150 per month, while a Haitian doing the same work was paid $35 per month." All these factors contributed to and helped sustain the racial and cultural impasse. that the "average" American family in Haiti employed four servants." Marines and their families, especially enlisted men who would have been relatively poor in the context of contemporary United States society, were the most affluent social stratum in Haiti. Americans who worked for the civilian branches of the occupation were paid higher salaries than were Haitian employees who did comparable work; an American office worker in the Service Technique was paid $150 per month, while a Haitian doing the same work was paid $35 per month." All these factors contributed to and helped sustain the racial and cultural impasse. --- Page 184 --- Uplift - The Prospects The basic American policy decisions that intervention, the continuation of the resulted in the original and the establishment of occupation after World War an authoritarian I, American military high commissioner government under an international considerations. were determined by broad The United States strengthen its strategic position in the intervened to military control after the Caribbean, and it retained terminate the war mainly because it could not occupation and because gracefully maintain political and economic self-imposed commitments to out military force. The control could not be fulfilled withcommitments to National strategic buildup, the installation of and consolidation of the City Bank of New York, the insistence on tion of European Haitian debt in American hands, the eliminaand economic influence, and the imposition of effective control were all part of a political ican hegemony in the Caribbean. larger effort to achieve Amerpotential of other Caribbean Compared with the economic and Venezuela, Haiti itself countries, especially Mexico, Cuba, most of the major American was relatively inconsequential. By 1920 of the pending loan objectives in Haiti, with the exception obviated. American consolidation, had been either achieved or longer threatened by military domination of the Caribbean was no controlled the Banque Germany or anyone else, American interests cal control Nationale, and continued financial was assured by the 1917 treaty and politiopen for an influx of American extension. The way was capital by virtue of the alien land- --- Page 185 --- UPLIFT-THE PROSPECTS ownership clause in the 1918 Constitution; lucrative capital investment had been conversely, prospects for experiences of American dampened by the frustrating and by the realization that entrepreneurs Haiti who had invested in Haiti development. had limited potential for economic The Wilson administration, any vital purpose in maintaining recognizing that there was no longer draw American troops in 1919 but military found control, attempted to withwithdrawal would have resulted that it could not. American embarrassing overthrow of the in victory for guerrilla forces, an denunciations of American client-goverment, and vociferous would have clearly discredited imperialism by Haitian nationalists that refused to accept the minimal the United States. So long as Haitians by the State American control deemed Department and threatened instead necessary American presence, it was deemed to obliterate the in Haiti. In terms of the vital necessary to maintain a garrison policy, the occupation became purposes of United States Caribbean signed to sit on Haiti until a stagnant holding operation dewithdrawn without the American troops could be gracefully and without prospect of a violent anti-American reaction abandoning long-term investors. With respect to American commitments to American occupation remained an awkward plans for the Caribbean, the earlier type of colonial conquest anachronism, reminiscent of an Quite apart from the international already in disrepute. led to the intervention and policy considerations that had occupation, were to determine the most Americans involved with duration of the tion would and should benefit the Haiti felt that the occupadant Butler stated that his ambition Haitians. Gendarmerie Commanblack man's country" and was to "make Haiti a first class a sense our task formed a civil another marine officer observed that "in missionaries who counterpart to the work of were devoting their lives to Christian icans, as representatives of these people. P1 Amernation, felt that they could an advanced, modern, industrialized Haiti with American transform backward, underdeveloped pected to pull Haiti technology and practical ingenuity. They exfollow the formula of up the by its bootstraps if only Haitians would In American success story. keeping with its numerous ulterior motives and style of the occupation, the United States the imperious applied only select ingre- that "in missionaries who counterpart to the work of were devoting their lives to Christian icans, as representatives of these people. P1 Amernation, felt that they could an advanced, modern, industrialized Haiti with American transform backward, underdeveloped pected to pull Haiti technology and practical ingenuity. They exfollow the formula of up the by its bootstraps if only Haitians would In American success story. keeping with its numerous ulterior motives and style of the occupation, the United States the imperious applied only select ingre- --- Page 186 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 formula to the uplift of Haiti. While dients of the American success and effiAmerican concepts of civil service reform, pragmatism, democintroduced into Haiti, political ciency were systematically Americans felt that the Haitians were too racy definitely was not. for them. The United States ignorant to know what was good eliminated popular control over disbanded the Haitian legislature, communal elections. In the rare the presidency, and even canceled at the local level instances when popular elections were permitted High Comto the approval of the occupation. results were subject 1926 communal elecmissioner Russell reported that experimental and that the client-governtions "were not altogether satisfactory" the elected councils, and ment had rescinded them, dissolved instead." In 1925 the appointed its own communal commissions Affairs recorded that he and chief of the Division of Latin American elections under present General Russell felt "that congressional because most Haitians conditions would be little more than a farce" of the meanthat they would have no conception were "so ignorant ing of an election." s 8 the electorate did not prevent Misgivings about the capacity of to pass the prothe Occupation from using national plebiscites amendments in Constitution of 1918 and constitutional American instances when Haitians were encour1928, but these were the only In both cases there was aged to participate in democratic processes. Democratic institutions outcome." no possibility of an anti-American elections would have resulted in were suppressed because popular and would have thus weakvictory for anti-American candidates This, according to the Occuened the authority of the Occupation. of material and moral pation view, would have hindered programs uplift. success formula to Haiti, Occupation In applying the American of and officials placed special emphasis on concepts pragmatism were basic Indeed, pragmatism and efficiency technical efficiency. policies to the extent that abstract in the formulation of Occupation self-determination American ideals and principles, such as national violated in order and the rights of individual citizens, were blatantly dominated results. The practical approach to achieve practical Haiti just as it dominated the internaAmerican efforts to reform the Occupation. of material and moral pation view, would have hindered programs uplift. success formula to Haiti, Occupation In applying the American of and officials placed special emphasis on concepts pragmatism were basic Indeed, pragmatism and efficiency technical efficiency. policies to the extent that abstract in the formulation of Occupation self-determination American ideals and principles, such as national violated in order and the rights of individual citizens, were blatantly dominated results. The practical approach to achieve practical Haiti just as it dominated the internaAmerican efforts to reform --- Page 187 --- UPLIFT-THE PROSPECTS Haiti policy. In a 1926 article entitled tional aspects of America's >9 Ulysses B. Weatherly "Haiti: An Experiment in Pragmatism, argued: free there must be an elaborate procBefore the people can be really the material equipment building; there must be constructed the ess of function, and there must be developed through which society may essential in a democintelligence and the civic spirit which are better absolutely that a nation be allowed The impossibilists argue that it is of waste, mudracy. results for itself, even at the expense to work out these insist that intelligent guidance from dling and violence. The pragmatists the process of national growth and without may sometimes accelerate save much waste." of European white-man's-burden These sentiments were clichés with fresh confidence, colonialism. In Haiti American pragmatists, made the which had SO recently expected that intelligent guidance, could not help but bear fruit. United States a great world power, and efficiency, with the This American fixation on pragmatism mainly through material implied corollary that progress is effected small number of Haitians achievements, had been popular among a Haitians had been tradion the eve of the intervention, but most became more SO in reaction to tionally hostile to these concepts and cultural In 1927 contact with American racism and noted prejudices. that Haitians were Financial Adviser W. W. Cumberland "Human psycholparticularly resistant to American-style progress: and experience. A of tradition, heritage ogy is a strange complex for present-day enlightenment and more unsatisfactory background than in the case of Haiti.". progress could hardly be devised there were Given the wide divergence of cultural backgrounds, viable synthesis of of sympathy from which a few common points ideals could be created. Many of the elite Haitian and American toward French cultural sophistiretained their idealistic orientation culture of their own and remained cation, the masses had an esoteric intellectuals and political skeptical of American ways, and younger American. The Americans, activists vigorously opposed everything for Haitian cultural traditions; the for their part, had little respect observed that director of the American School in Port-au-Prince Haitian is hopelessly old- "The daily life and performances of the , viable synthesis of of sympathy from which a few common points ideals could be created. Many of the elite Haitian and American toward French cultural sophistiretained their idealistic orientation culture of their own and remained cation, the masses had an esoteric intellectuals and political skeptical of American ways, and younger American. The Americans, activists vigorously opposed everything for Haitian cultural traditions; the for their part, had little respect observed that director of the American School in Port-au-Prince Haitian is hopelessly old- "The daily life and performances of the --- Page 188 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 untactful Amerfashioned or even ludicrous to the proverbially ican." indoctrinate Haitians in the advanThe Occupation attempted to through the example of tages of modern technology and efficiency bridges, and government American genius in constructing roads, subordinates who buildings, and by direct tutelage of Haitian of Public under American supervisors in the Department worked the Gendarmerie, and the several other Works, the Customs Service, The American-sponsored departments of the client-government. schooling in modern agricultural Service Technique provided formal Haitians were already reluctant and industrial technology. While and attitudes because of American to assimilate American methods of introducing American the problem racial and cultural prejudices, confrontation with basic Haitian pragmatism and efficiency involved and material rewards for work. values and ambitions regarding work while held that manual labor was demeaning, The elite traditionally subsistence farming and were relucthe peasants were enmeshed in existence in outlandish experiments tant to risk an already tenuous progress. Financial fundamental to American technological that were stated: "The peasants, living lives Adviser Arthur C. Millspaugh carefree and indolent and shiftless, are enviably which to us seem be citizens of an independent selfcontented; but, if they are to least a larger number of nation, they must acquire, or at governing them must acquire, a new set of wants." doing fieldanthropologists and sociologists After the occupation, had to work hard to scratch a work in Haiti found that peasants competitive in merchanliving from poor soil and were extremely their immediate needs." dising what little they produced beyond Institute of Social field for the Smithsonian's In 1952 a ethnologist the resistance of Haitian peasants to technoAnthropology described logical innovations as follows: of chance, multiplied by the primiSubject to innumerable vagaries the livelihood of the Haitian farmer tiveness of his hoe technology, very factors over which he has is at the mercy of a great many unpredictable therefore, to risk even greater inselittle or no control. He is not prone, as he retains any doubt as to curity by accepting new practices as long the certainty of their immediate profit to him.10 field for the Smithsonian's In 1952 a ethnologist the resistance of Haitian peasants to technoAnthropology described logical innovations as follows: of chance, multiplied by the primiSubject to innumerable vagaries the livelihood of the Haitian farmer tiveness of his hoe technology, very factors over which he has is at the mercy of a great many unpredictable therefore, to risk even greater inselittle or no control. He is not prone, as he retains any doubt as to curity by accepting new practices as long the certainty of their immediate profit to him.10 --- Page 189 --- UPLIFT-THE PROSPECTS little effort was made to fathom the During the occupation very failed to react enthusiintricacies of peasant culture. When peasants as ignorant astically to American technology, they were dismissed played an imand lazy. Here, again, racial and cultural prejudices portant role. stimulate Haitian participation by offering Americans tried to and efficient performance and incentives for increased production emby trying to create a competitive spirit among government customs posts on The Customs Service graded the several ployees. which reflected accuracy and promptness an elaborate point system and awarded the winof returns and other criteria of excellence, a 10 percent with a suitably engraved loving cup plus ning post individual grading system penalized customs emsalary bonus. An reduction when their performance ployees with a 10 percent salary scale." A marine officer once stimufell below a specified numerical awarding eighteen Ingersoll lated a local house-building boom by 12 In general, howwatches as prizes to otherwise skeptical peasants." promises, and efforts Haitians were not excited by American failed ever, economic development by offering incentives to encourage miserably. offered by the Service Technique, Aside from the formal schooling constituted the major the several branches of the client-government subordinates. Haitian of direct American tutelage of Haitian area from Cabinet officers to local justices of the government employees, and were forced to conpeace, were subjected to close supervision and efficiency. The Deform to American standards of competence Public Health Service assigned partment of Public Works and the and doctors in the to American engineers Haitians as apprentices would eventually take over by themselves. expectation that they efforts to imbue their Haitian subordiAmerican supervisors made in American ideals of pragmatism nates with the concept, implicit should perform effective public and efficiency, that government were public servants who services and that government employees This concept of politinecessarily must be honest and conscientious. traditional Haitian political contrasted sharply with the cal morality of public office. Amerethic which recognized graft as a perquisite "Haitian politicians, in Stuart Grummon observed that ican Chargé ians as apprentices would eventually take over by themselves. expectation that they efforts to imbue their Haitian subordiAmerican supervisors made in American ideals of pragmatism nates with the concept, implicit should perform effective public and efficiency, that government were public servants who services and that government employees This concept of politinecessarily must be honest and conscientious. traditional Haitian political contrasted sharply with the cal morality of public office. Amerethic which recognized graft as a perquisite "Haitian politicians, in Stuart Grummon observed that ican Chargé --- Page 190 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 with those of the other backward Latin American countries, common ideal of government for the have no conception of the Anglo-Saxon government solely as a means beneft of the governed, looking upon of the governed." 18 of enriching themselves at the expense American officials scrutinized Immediately after the intervention employees who were dethe government payroll and eliminated The Occupation virtuceased, not working, or grossly incompetent. rigorous accounting ally eliminated wholesale graft by instituting Americans in charge of and auditing procedures and by placing officials demanded honesty government expenditures. Occupation subordinates and in most cases lived up and efficiency from Haitian service themselves." to high standards of honesty and public tied to AmerAmerican efforts to reform Haiti were inextricably did the creation of administration of Haitian finances. Not only ican bureaucracy hinge upon systematic fiscal an efficient government and all Occupation uplift reorganization, but the client-government Haitian revfinanced from government programs were exclusively on the state of the Haitian enues and were therefore dependent established by the United States. treasury and on the fiscal priorities on the repayment of American financial policy placed first priority the prosperHaiti's external debt to American bondholders. and During the advent of the between the 1922 loan consolidation ous years American financial advisers used budWorld Depression in 1929 owed to American investors far getary surpluses to pay off the debt Funds available for schedules. in advance of required payment education and public works, were development programs, such as correspondingly limited. virtually complete control over The United States exercised had always been the key tactical Haitian finances. Financial control The Wilson administraobjective of American intervention policy. prior to the intervention, tion had pressed for a customs receivership control of customs and govand the 1915 treaty featured American mention of other uplift possiernment finances while making scant for developing a bilities with the notable exception of provisions American financial force. The treaty provided that an native police to coordinate Haitian adviser be attached to the Haitian government accord suitable policies, and an additional finances and recommend adviser exclusive control over drafting in 1918 gave the financial Haitian finances. Financial control The Wilson administraobjective of American intervention policy. prior to the intervention, tion had pressed for a customs receivership control of customs and govand the 1915 treaty featured American mention of other uplift possiernment finances while making scant for developing a bilities with the notable exception of provisions American financial force. The treaty provided that an native police to coordinate Haitian adviser be attached to the Haitian government accord suitable policies, and an additional finances and recommend adviser exclusive control over drafting in 1918 gave the financial --- Page 191 --- UPLIFT-THE PROSPECTS the Haitian budget, which ment for approval," was then submitted to the In the years between client-governStates extended its financial 1922 and 1930, the United under the presidency of Louis control beyond stipulated concessions Borno, In 1929 General Russell stated: The financial control now existing in Haiti has growth. It goes far beyond the been one of gradual ent system of fnancial control has provisions been of the Treaty. . . . The pressioner largely built up by the High through a spirit of Commisjudgement on the part of President cooperation, intelligence, and good sions of the Treaty but is beyond the Borno. It does not rest on the provithrough the honest desire of President Treaty, an extension brought about Haiti.1 Borno to rehabilitate and develop Financial control was facilitated by the 1922 which entailed a pivotal debt consolidation, ican hands and the reorganization of Haitian finances in Amerterm accountability acceptance by the of to American financial client-government longThe debt consolidation involved interests. mated between 1922 and a series of three loans consum1922 Series A loan 1925, the largest of which was the initial refunding Haiti's totaling $16 million floated for the of external debt. A purpose loan was used to refund the internal subsequent $5 million Series B and to pay the awards made debt from the 1912-14 period sion; and a separate Series C loan by an international Claims CommisRailway bonds. Of the $15 million of $1.7 million refunded National $6 million was used to refund the proceeds from the Series A loan, holders, which had been worth external debt to French bondof the franc during and after $21.5 million prior to the devaluation and $2.2 million World War I, and sums of $4.1 were paid to the Banque Nationale and the million Railway, respectively. 18 Claims held against the National by the American-owned Haitian government exempted from the Banque and Railway had been specifically scrutiny of the international established by a 1919 Claims Commission loan covered $3.5 million Haitian-American awarded protocol." The Series B awards amounted by the Claims Commission. Financial to less than 9 percent of foreign claims These Adviser Millspaugh later referred which mass of pecuniary exaggeration. 9> 20 to as "a long-festering The Series C loan was used to refund National Railway bonds, American-owned Haitian government exempted from the Banque and Railway had been specifically scrutiny of the international established by a 1919 Claims Commission loan covered $3.5 million Haitian-American awarded protocol." The Series B awards amounted by the Claims Commission. Financial to less than 9 percent of foreign claims These Adviser Millspaugh later referred which mass of pecuniary exaggeration. 9> 20 to as "a long-festering The Series C loan was used to refund National Railway bonds, --- Page 192 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF the amortization HAITI, 1915-1934 A loan. The and interest of which had been paid by the Series exchange of Series Cbonds for at 75 percent of par value and National Railway bonds greatly reduced the an attendant reorganization plan tically ended its financial government's liabilities to the Railway and pracastrously expensive and involvement in what had been a disP.C.S. Railway continued to economically worthless enterprise. The Roger L. Farnham drew operate under government and a lucrative as subsidy, the National Railway by virtue of salary absentee receiver of but the a 1920 New York court Railway no longer enjoyed the staunch decision; Department, and the American support of the State the Haitian government in financial advisers tended to back the extent of authorizing subsequent contract disputes, even to stoppage of the subsidy." Compared to the exorbitant loan flotations intervention, Haiti received a undertaken before the the 1922-25 loans. The State relatively high rate of return for itself to an offer for a $16 million Department loan had originally committed pany that would have netted the by Lee, Higginson, and Comface value. Lee, Higginson made Haitian the government 85 percent of partment memorandum, bid, according to a State Detive features would be held "upon the understanding that the competitrading points for confidential and would not be used as change in market conditions playing one banker off against the other," but a ment and National and pressure from the Haitian City Bank forced Financial governto reopen negotiations and ask for Adviser Mellhenny this, Lee, Higginson offered competitive bids." Informed of earlier bid, but the loan to make a substantial increase in its which made a low offer was of finally awarded to National City Bank, Haitian a $16 million loan that would government 92.137 percent. 28 yield the ican marines and complete American Despite the presence of Amerno better than the average for financial control, this rate was which were much more Latin-American loans of the period, corporate bonds expensive than either internal or the worldwide American 1922 sixty representative average for foreign bonds. In vestors 4.9 percent while the American corporate bonds yielded inwas 7.5 percent. 24 The 7.9 average for new Latin-American bonds Series A loan and the $5 percent yield of the $16 million Haitian typical of Latin-American million Series B loan included, as was loans of the period, a 4 percent bankers' average for financial control, this rate was which were much more Latin-American loans of the period, corporate bonds expensive than either internal or the worldwide American 1922 sixty representative average for foreign bonds. In vestors 4.9 percent while the American corporate bonds yielded inwas 7.5 percent. 24 The 7.9 average for new Latin-American bonds Series A loan and the $5 percent yield of the $16 million Haitian typical of Latin-American million Series B loan included, as was loans of the period, a 4 percent bankers' --- Page 193 --- UPLIFT-THE PROSPECTS to National City Bank, which handled the commission payable loans. e Committee investigation of foreign At the 1932 Senate Finance Bank submitted a statement of its bond transactions, National City million Haitian loan of loan flotations that listed the Series C $1.7 of face value been sold to Haiti for 81.3 percent 1925 as having spread of 14.7 percent to National resulting in a phenomenal that profit it had sold the bonds to the public City Bank, which stated is inasmuch of face value. 25 This information spurious at 96 percent sold by the Haitian government as the bonds were never actually National Railway bonds. The 14.7 but were simply exchanged for National City Bank, which was the percent profit registered by Latin-American transaction of the bank's largest spread on any Financial Adviser Cumberland, a 1920s, represented, according to National City Bank had its Paris speculative venture in which National Railway and inconspicuously buy up branch gradually that they would eventually bonds at low prices on the assumption Cumberland noted that be redeemed by the Haitian government. neither from the point of "the railroad itself had no value and that any bonded was it capable of supporting view of assets or earnings Bank profits represented the indebtedness," and that National City underwriting of speculative risk rather than an excessive rewards of the dubious Railway bonds had, of commission." Redemption States control of the Haitian course, been contingent on United of Railway claims from government and the specific exemption commission. investigation by the 1919 international claims but not outrageously All in all, National City Bank enjoyed a high Its Haitian exorbitant rate of profit on its various Haitian operations. according to a highsubsidiary, the Banque Nationale, averaged, year from 1924 $160,000 total profit per ranking Haitian employee, treasury and its commerto 1930 for its services as the government service was basic to the cial banking activities." 27 The treasury with consistent profit returns on into the Depression years, for Banque's 60 percent of total Banque deposits government funds averaging Series A and B bonds from the Haitian govThe National City Bank purchased nominal value and then sold the bonds to the American ernment at 92.137 percent of nominal value. United Nations, Department of Economic public at 96.5 percent of Capital in Latin America, pp. 7-8. and Social Affairs, Foreign asury and its commerto 1930 for its services as the government service was basic to the cial banking activities." 27 The treasury with consistent profit returns on into the Depression years, for Banque's 60 percent of total Banque deposits government funds averaging Series A and B bonds from the Haitian govThe National City Bank purchased nominal value and then sold the bonds to the American ernment at 92.137 percent of nominal value. United Nations, Department of Economic public at 96.5 percent of Capital in Latin America, pp. 7-8. and Social Affairs, Foreign --- Page 194 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 funds deposited with Nathe years 1922-35." Haitian government earned either no interest or less tional City Bank in New York banks, but the Amerthan could be obtained from other competitive consistently applied ican financial adviser and the State Department succeeded in amelioratpressure on National City Bank and partially derived from the 1910 and ing blatantly exploitative practices which 1922 Banque charters." 29 with the State Department, National In negotiating the 1922 loans give public Bank insisted that the United States government City intention to retain control over Haiti. An October, assurances of its million loan protocol had stipulated 1919, Haitian-American $40 duly by the Presithat "the control by an officer or officers appointed of the United States, dent of Haiti, upon nomination by the President revenues, will be and allocation of the hypothetical of the collection of the loan after the expiration of the aforeprovided during the life that "It is clearly Treaty, > but the protocol also stated said [1915] does not in fact or by implication understood that this Protocol 16, 1915, > and that extend the provisions of the Treaty of September within two authorized loan would have to be consummated the of the protocol. 80 In 1921, National years of the date of signature Mitchell wrote Secretary of State City Bank President Charles E. and definite Hughes that "it will be necessary to include that a strong this control over assurance by the United States Government the life of the loan until Haitian finances will continue throughout troops bonds have been paid." - 31 The presence of American all the control were, of course, crucial to the and commitments to long-term bonds on the American market and successful flotation of Haitian favorable terms for Haiti. Distributo the proourement of relatively with Haitian bonds on the stock tors of securities that competed United States was getting out. 82 market spread rumors that the for a firm official stateReferring to National City Bank's request for publication on bond ment on continuation of the occupation "I doubt if we ought to convey the flyers, President Harding stated: American supervision until impression that we mean to maintain however, that we will the maturity of these obligations. I assume, which until conditions are established maintain such supervision American investors that Haiti has will warrant the confidence of 99 88 stable order where her pledges are wholly acceptable." reached a tors of securities that competed United States was getting out. 82 market spread rumors that the for a firm official stateReferring to National City Bank's request for publication on bond ment on continuation of the occupation "I doubt if we ought to convey the flyers, President Harding stated: American supervision until impression that we mean to maintain however, that we will the maturity of these obligations. I assume, which until conditions are established maintain such supervision American investors that Haiti has will warrant the confidence of 99 88 stable order where her pledges are wholly acceptable." reached a --- Page 195 --- UPLIFT-THE PROSPECTS would accept reversion to The expectation that the bondholders at the time of United States Haitian control, no matter how stable, In 1922 the State Departwithdrawal in 1934 proved unrealistic. commitment, but instead had ment demurred from making a direct statement Financial Adviser McIlhenny make a public American that the United States then had emphasizing the firm financial grip flyer issued by National Three pages of the four-page over Haiti. for the $16 million 1922 bonds consisted City Bank as advertisement to the bank pointing out, with appropriof a letter from Mcllhenny the various guarantees of American ate paragraphs underlined, included in the 1915 treaty." No mention financial control that were when the treaty expired in 1936. was made of what would happen of United States governSince the bonds ran until 1952, the extent being moral to the bondholders was ambiguous, ment obligations and would become a major source of difficulty rather than legal, to terminate the occupation in when the United States attempted In the end, despite the absence the aftermath of the 1929 uprisings. States the United government of any explicit or legal commitments, the of complicating the stood by the bondholders even at expense States retained financial Good Neighbor policy. The United new withdrawal through a resident fiscal control after the 1934 troop Haiti until 1941, when his functions representative who remained in which remained under were transferred to the Banque Nationale, paid in until the bonds were completely United States supervision 1947. bonded indebtedness to American investors Repayment of the States administration of Haitian remained the focal point of United through the 1929 depresfinances from the 1922 debt consolidation and the 1915 treaty, sion. By the terms of the loan agreements of customs receivership service of the external debt and payment revenues. American constituted a first lien on all Haitian debt expenses went further than this by consistently making financial policy contractual requirements and by building payments far in excess of of lean years. Financial Adup large cash reserves in anticipation ending in who held office for a four-year period viser Cumberland, that Haitian revenues were "enDecember, 1927, acknowledged development programs and that tirely inadequate" for necessary both for capital "To remedy all of these defects large expenditures, agreements of customs receivership service of the external debt and payment revenues. American constituted a first lien on all Haitian debt expenses went further than this by consistently making financial policy contractual requirements and by building payments far in excess of of lean years. Financial Adup large cash reserves in anticipation ending in who held office for a four-year period viser Cumberland, that Haitian revenues were "enDecember, 1927, acknowledged development programs and that tirely inadequate" for necessary both for capital "To remedy all of these defects large expenditures, --- Page 196 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 85 Nevertheand for maintenance, will be necessary." of improvements formulated a plan whereby only one-third less, Cumberland works while twosurplus revenues were used for public of the projects, debt in advance of thirds were applied to the retirement Cumberland's avowed requirements and to building a cash reserve." the most conservative in conducting Haiti's finances "upon bondholders and purpose the interests of American basis" was to safeguard 87 This policy also saved interest strengthen Haiti's credit standing." financial obligation to American costs and shortened the period of bondholders. of actual requirements totaled $2.4 Debt reductions in excess and in several years debt payments million for the years 1924-29, obligations." 88 The Haitian were more than double the contractual million in 1924 to $16.5 million public debt was reduced from $24.2 1930 cash reserves would have in 1930 and further application of of rapid The policy emphasizing reduced the debt to $12.6 million." cash reserves was later critidebt retirement and buildup of large which reported to President cized by the 1930 Forbes Commission, better to have reduced taxation, Hoover that "it might have been left the debt to work itself out during especially the export tax, and in the country where its normal term, thus keeping more needed." money 40 In response to this experience has shown it was badly his motives for Cumberland stated that one of principal argument, debt retirement had been to give "ample proceeding with rapid in view of the uncertainty of Amerprotection to the bondholders" 1936 and that "if these gentlemen [the ican financial control after been holders of Haitian bonds . . . their Forbes Commission] had different." >7 41 In reviewing his four-year conclusions might have been Cumberland noted that his tour, at the time of his resignation, the treasury in an admirable "conservative policies" had "placed by proportionate position, but this had not been accompanied 42 Whatever the extent of progress on the part of the population." the Occupation's financial prolost opportunities for development, establishment of Haitian finances on certainly resulted in the gram had been in the 1915 treaty." a firm and solid basis, as promised into as a tight fiscal manipulator has been incorporated as e Cumberland's efficiency devices for by-passing electric meters, estimated Haitian popular culture. Wiring company's output, are known today as bleeding half the American-owned Bernard power Diederich and Al Burt, Papa Doc: The Truth "the Cumberland" in Haiti; York: McCraw-Hill Book Co., 1969), 270-71. About Haiti Today (New on certainly resulted in the gram had been in the 1915 treaty." a firm and solid basis, as promised into as a tight fiscal manipulator has been incorporated as e Cumberland's efficiency devices for by-passing electric meters, estimated Haitian popular culture. Wiring company's output, are known today as bleeding half the American-owned Bernard power Diederich and Al Burt, Papa Doc: The Truth "the Cumberland" in Haiti; York: McCraw-Hill Book Co., 1969), 270-71. About Haiti Today (New --- Page 197 --- UPLIFT-THE PROSPECTS Adviser Sidney de la Rue, who took over in March, Financial of debt retirement, reversed the policy supplemental 1929, sharply in fiscal priorities was irrelevant because but by this time the change after the advent of the 1929 there were no more revenue surpluses needed to up payments on depression, and cash reserves were the keep 1930s, when all other the debt, which was serviced throughout default. Commenting on the Latin-American countries went into de la Rue observed: previous policy of rapid debt retirement, the anomalous situation of an adminThroughout the period we have the intention of carrying on a development program at istration expressing the flotation of one or more new loans which would make necessary than the original which could hardly have been more favorable rates surplus cash for retirement of a loan issue, and at the same time using in 1922 to secure on comparatively which it had been fortunate enough favorable terms. 43 on the fact that previous policy had deliberWithout commenting interests at the expense of Haitian uplift, ately favored American in excess of requirements sugde la Rue argued that the payment borrowed is being used to pay off the gested that "money recently the use for which it debt without having been put to productive "an admission that obtained" and that this policy was was originally the administration is unable to use borunder normal conditions >2 44 Where Cumberland pointed with rowed funds for productive use. Haitian credit standpride to savings in interest costs and improved de la Rue ing that had been achieved by rapid debt retirement, have been more imcontended that prospective creditors would funds. As it turned out, the pressed with productive use of excess irrelevant after 1929, when question of credit standing became interest only to AmerHaiti's relatively high credit standing was of were unavailsince new funds for development ican bondholders, able in any case. of the Occupation had been hampered The development programs $2.4 million of the $16 million by lack of funds from the outset. Only works, and Occupation of1922 loan had been allocated for public this sum since adequate ficials were at a loss as to how to spend even substantial of the had not yet been developed." A part intact until programs $600,000 set aside for irrigation projects, was kept sum, abandoned in 1929." The priority the contemplated projects were unavailsince new funds for development ican bondholders, able in any case. of the Occupation had been hampered The development programs $2.4 million of the $16 million by lack of funds from the outset. Only works, and Occupation of1922 loan had been allocated for public this sum since adequate ficials were at a loss as to how to spend even substantial of the had not yet been developed." A part intact until programs $600,000 set aside for irrigation projects, was kept sum, abandoned in 1929." The priority the contemplated projects were --- Page 198 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 and creation of cash reserves during the given to debt retirement from 1922 to 1929 obviously left the relatively prosperous period uplift program with proportionately other facets of the Occupation's debt reduction exceeded requireless money. In 1927, when external expenditures broke down ments by $1 million, the leading budgetary as follows: 47 Public debt $2.68 million 1.44 million Public works 1.28 million Gendarmerie .68 million Public health .50 million Agricultural service .40 million Public instruction funds for the development The fact that Haitian government financial policy was all the more programs were limited by American development through prisignificant because hoped-for economic capital investment did not materialize. vate American Haiti had been based largely on the American hopes for uplifting investors would finance and expectation that American private involving as it did direct economic development. This expectation, assumed that investors the ideology of free-enterprise capitalism, of extracting greater profits would be drawn to Haiti by the prospect that their activities would than could be obtained elsewhere and for Haiti. Americans would engender residual economic benefits feature of United economic progress to Haiti as an attendant would bring imperialism, since American entrepreneurs States economic build Haiti while they were exploiting investcoincidentally help up officer prophesied 48 In 1921 a State Department ment opportunities." of French-colonial Saint Domingue that the fantastic prosperity auspices through an influx of could be re-created under American the land safeguarded to prevent its monopolizing of capital, "properly 9> and abetted by a program agriand driving the peasant class," officials were cultural education.* 49 In practice, however, Occupation Amerfaced with the dilemma of trying to encourage constantly simultaneously protecting Haiti against ican investments while for investment projects that blatant despoliation. Since possibilities to be severely limited would be both equitable and lucrative proved barred what Financial Adand American officials conscientiously through an influx of could be re-created under American the land safeguarded to prevent its monopolizing of capital, "properly 9> and abetted by a program agriand driving the peasant class," officials were cultural education.* 49 In practice, however, Occupation Amerfaced with the dilemma of trying to encourage constantly simultaneously protecting Haiti against ican investments while for investment projects that blatant despoliation. Since possibilities to be severely limited would be both equitable and lucrative proved barred what Financial Adand American officials conscientiously --- Page 199 --- UPLIFT-THE PROSPECTS 92 the concessions; Cumberland referred to as "unconscionable viser amounted to much. 50 influx of capital never investments in Haiti had been Prior to the intervention American concessions and special privibased on exploitation of government The Occupation, by leges rather than upon productive enterprise. American and other forgraft, incurred the enmity of most discrimiending complained about being eign businessmen who frequently The largest American enterprise, nated against by treaty officials. (HASCO), engaged in a the Haitian-American Sugar Company officials and the State Departrunning controversy with Occupation and concessions which ment over the honoring of special privileges of the Division of Latin Ameripredated the intervention. The chief can Affairs noted: intervention the treaty officials properly regarded After the American to the Haitian Government and many of these special privileges as unfair and attempted to restrict their detrimental to the welfare of the country, for existing contractual operation SO far as possible with due respect who have gone into the matof the Department rights. . . . The officials whatever for the corporation in its efforts to retain ter have no sympathy concessions obtained by its predeand make the most of the onerous which from earlier Haitian governments . . new companies concescessors fair terms and without seeking to profit by old have gone in on 1915 have not made complaints." 51 sions obtained before reluctance to sanction unfair concessions reState Department 1923 concession that would sulted in the abortion of a proposed to the Sinexclusive rights for petroleum exploration have granted monopolistic concession had been clair Oil Company. A similar and State Department officials felt denied to a British firm in 1916, could not turn around and grant that under the circumstances they 52 Commenting on the same concession to an American company. A. N. Young objections to the Sinclair concession, the department's Adviser stated that he did not think that of the Office of Economic in the region of our own "sphere the United States could "do things if done by others in regions of influence' to which we would object interested." " 58 President Harding, in which they claim to be specially rocked by a series of graft whose administration was then being in June, 1923, that "If scandals, wrote Secretary of State Hughes Commenting on the same concession to an American company. A. N. Young objections to the Sinclair concession, the department's Adviser stated that he did not think that of the Office of Economic in the region of our own "sphere the United States could "do things if done by others in regions of influence' to which we would object interested." " 58 President Harding, in which they claim to be specially rocked by a series of graft whose administration was then being in June, 1923, that "If scandals, wrote Secretary of State Hughes --- Page 200 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED sanctioned in Haiti I would there are to be any private monopolies of sponsorship that the sanction be made after our surrender prefer there." 54 the old pattern of exploitative concessions Prospects for replacing projects quickly dimmed. with viable, seif-supporting development for economic At the outset of the occupation, Haitian factor. potential Initial estimates by development had been an unknown land of almost unexampled Americans indicated that Haiti was "a but sheer "luxuriant" vegetation and that "nothing fertility" with them [the Haitians] from lack of initiative and industry keeps W. A. MacCorkle of rich." s 55 In 1915 former Governor becoming West Virginia declared eloquently: within its shores more natural wealth than any other This island has the world. By reason of its rich valleys and territory of similar size in known to man. All tropical splendid mountains it has every temperature and fruits of the temperate plants and trees, as well as the vegetables The best coffee known to commerce climes, grow there in perfection. in the earth are silver, wild, without planting or cultivation : . . of grows this island is more capable supporting gold, copper, lead, iron . . able . to create wealth and diffuse happiness life in all its phases, more land of its size on the face of the earth." to its people, than any other firm reported that the rural work codes An investment consulting and that labor was "ridiculously were "all in favor of the employer" factor toward the success of any cheap at present and will be a great that this was 29 An American journalist, noting agricultural enterprise. and children, 99 stated that Haiti was "no place for American women for "a rich in resources and that there were great opportunities little > 67 fortune who wishes to go there with a capital. soldier of of Haitian labor was indeed a real The cheapness and abundance investment: Haitian laborers and continuing attraction to foreign for twelve hours of work. 58 were paid at the rate of 20 cents per day passing laws to raise Financial Adviser de la Rue argued against Haiti has is cheap laborwages in 1930, stating: "The greatest asset does not exceed the labor of labor whose daily cost to an employer Should labor costs here be other lands whose products are similar. where conditions are more increased artificially, that capital will go favorable." " 60 of Haitian labor was indeed a real The cheapness and abundance investment: Haitian laborers and continuing attraction to foreign for twelve hours of work. 58 were paid at the rate of 20 cents per day passing laws to raise Financial Adviser de la Rue argued against Haiti has is cheap laborwages in 1930, stating: "The greatest asset does not exceed the labor of labor whose daily cost to an employer Should labor costs here be other lands whose products are similar. where conditions are more increased artificially, that capital will go favorable." " 60 --- Page 201 --- UPLIFT-THE PROSPECTS were SO low in Haiti that recruiting agents representing Wages United Fruit and General Sugar most notably the American-owned about 20,000 Haitian laborers to migrate companies annually induced for seasonal work at $1 to $1.50 to Cuba during the mid-1920s about all Haiti had to offer, per day. 60 Cheap labor was, however, for basic lack of and this by itself was not enough to compensate natural resources. for economic exploitation and develOriginal high expectations business ventures encounopment in Haiti diminished as American businessmen testifying at experiences. American tered frustrating told stories of crop failures, tariff problems, the 1922 Senate Inquiry disruptive racism and lack of insufficiency of natural resources, and failure of the Occupacooperation on the part of treaty officials, investment. 61 The only conditions favorable to capital tion to create projects of the pre-1922 period two major American development million cotton-growing enterprise were floundering or defunct: a $1 died, and the American sugar had failed completely when its crops in 1921." In subHASCO, was forced into receivership which company, HASCO developed into a profitable operation sequent years by 1928, and promising tripled its initial 1918 sugar production in the mid-1920s; but otherAmerican sisal plantations were begun successful American private wise there was little in the way of investments indevelopment ventures." 63 While American sugar in 1929 and HASCO creased from $7 million in 1919 to $8.7 million other ventures, over 1,000 men by the mid-1930s, was employing closed with heavy losses." such as cotton and pineapple plantations, by 1930 and manufacturing was disappointing: Progress in mining of commercial value and the few there were no mining operations hundred men. 65 At the time of new factories employed only several investments consisted withdrawal, when American capital American HASCO, and a sisal plantation, an Amerof the National Railway, that the "roseate predictions" of American ican businessman stated the Haitians would derive from officials regarding the "benefits American control had economic developments" resulting from the relative lack of The problem was "failed to materinlize."" and had little Haiti simply was not a rich country natural resources. American investors from more lucrative to offer that could draw opportunities elsewhere. of new factories employed only several investments consisted withdrawal, when American capital American HASCO, and a sisal plantation, an Amerof the National Railway, that the "roseate predictions" of American ican businessman stated the Haitians would derive from officials regarding the "benefits American control had economic developments" resulting from the relative lack of The problem was "failed to materinlize."" and had little Haiti simply was not a rich country natural resources. American investors from more lucrative to offer that could draw opportunities elsewhere. --- Page 202 --- OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED STATES economic potential, partially illusions regarding Haitian by systematic American business failures, were destroyed in the early dispelled by early of Haitian resources undertaken lent to Haiti by governmental surveys and geological experts extremely 1920s. American agricultural concluded that resources were light rainthe State Department Survey of Haiti" reported mineral exports, limited. A 1922 "Agricultural of crops, little hope for six-month fall, poor soil, poor outlook variety for pasturage." 67 A comprehensive United States Geologiand a negative technical experts lent by the which was genersurvey by three 631-page report no resulted in a thorough and disclosed cal Survey about agricultural development 68 A 1924 United States ally pessimistic exploitable mineral resources." Haiti: An Economic commercially Commerce pamphlet entitled were Department of for agricultural development and "squatSurvey noted that possibilities of small-scale agriculture obtain clear limited by the chaotic system made it difficult for investors to which ter sovereignty," tracts of land." about potential for ecotitle to large the original optimism awareness By the mid-1920s being replaced by an increasing for Amerwas rather than nomic development headed for economic disaster High Comthat Haiti was In his 1925 Annual Report, noting ican-sponsored prosperity. made ominous reference to overpopulation, tends to increase missioner Russell Malthus show that a population only in that "The laws of while the food supply increases whose progression Cumberland, in geometric progression." > 70 Financial Adviser debt retirement at the arithmetic fiscal policies favored rapid recalled that the navy conservative programs, later had once told him: expense of development the Public Health Service captain who headed for this enormous realize that you and I are largely we've responsible been here-you, because Do you that has come since reduced the death rate somecrop of pickaninnies financed it, and I because I have these poor innocent infants are you have what's going to happen? Why the same starvation life that what. Now, and they will have just going to grow up, their parents had." observed that "Haiti is In 1929 Financial Adviser relative Millspaugh to its potential production," overpopulated even death rates tended to "keep already birth rates and falling and that rising that you and I are largely we've responsible been here-you, because Do you that has come since reduced the death rate somecrop of pickaninnies financed it, and I because I have these poor innocent infants are you have what's going to happen? Why the same starvation life that what. Now, and they will have just going to grow up, their parents had." observed that "Haiti is In 1929 Financial Adviser relative Millspaugh to its potential production," overpopulated even death rates tended to "keep already birth rates and falling and that rising --- Page 203 --- UPLIFT-THE PROSPECTS the masses near the level of primitive living. >> 72 The doubling of the population in subsequent years coupled with continuing lack of economic development bore out these morbid predictions. With limited potential for economic development and consequent absence of American investment capital, hopes for economic progress devolved mainly on the Occupation itself. Government action was circumscribed both by budgetary limitations and by free-enterprise ideology with its narrow definition of the role of government in economic matters. --- Page 204 --- Uplift - - Success and Failure Even with the limitations ideology and fiscal imposed by free-enterprise economic Occupation initiated priorities based on rapid debt the a number of impressive retirement, promote economic well-being. These measures designed to efforts, such as a plan by Mrs. ranged from informal personal sioner, to relieve hard times Russell, wife of the high commisStates embroideries knitted among the elite by selling in the United technical education by Haitian ladies, to the comprehensive economic dislocation program of the Service Technique. the caused by World War During went to the lengths of directly I, the Occupation even Colonel Russell, then engaging in commercial transactions. Brigade wartime food shortage caused Commander, intervened to relieve a arranging for the by the curtailment of shipping by modities from the client-government Navy to purchase flour and other comthen sold to local wholesalers Department at contract prices; the flour was small profit percentages." and retailers, who were allowed only and most economic activities This, however, was an emergency measure The main contribution were more conventional, of the Occupation to progress was the establishment of law and Haitian economic following complete pacification in 1920 order. During the years conduct their businesses in merchants were able to expenditure of an average peace of and, moreover, profited from the one thousand marine salaries. In modities from the client-government Navy to purchase flour and other comthen sold to local wholesalers Department at contract prices; the flour was small profit percentages." and retailers, who were allowed only and most economic activities This, however, was an emergency measure The main contribution were more conventional, of the Occupation to progress was the establishment of law and Haitian economic following complete pacification in 1920 order. During the years conduct their businesses in merchants were able to expenditure of an average peace of and, moreover, profited from the one thousand marine salaries. In --- Page 205 --- UPLIFT-SUCCESS AND FAILURE the turmoil and incessant revolutions of the premarked contrast to stability under the Americans 1915 period, peace and governmental and public works permitted the development of effective of productive roads and pubic buildand public health programs. Construction continuity in rate. Likewise, ings proceeded at an unprecedented ending revolutions was pregovernment administration achieved by reforms which greatly requisite to a whole series of administrative and services to the governmental services in general improved business community in particular. efforts to attract American capiThe Occupation made persistent of the 1918 Constitution, tal investments beginning with the passage and later included the 1928 which legalized alien landownership had been hostile to American busireform of Haitian courts, which of which were undertaken nessmen.? Public works projects, most necessary communiafter the 1922 reorganization, helped develop theoretications and public services; indeed, a German Geopolitik roads and cian, writing in 1938, pointed to American-sponsored conceived as requisites government services as having been expertly and rationalized Americans reorganized of economic penetration." for standardization of grades Haitian customs duties and provided The Service Technique, which of coffee which facilitated commerce. conducted agricultural encompassed a technical education program, and was helpful in imported new breeds of livestock, formal experiments, cultivation. In addition to the various uplift developing sisal individual Gendarmerie programs promoted by the Occupation, inclinations, to officers did what they could, according to personal to include inhelp peasants at the local level and were required reports." All of and commerce in their monthly formation on crops significant economic development this, however, did not produce remained oriented toward since most Occupation uplift programs attract American capital increation of circumstances that would vestment and this investment never materialized. Occupation officials In trying to attract capital investments, of offering profitable opfaced with the dilemma were always while simultaneously fulfilling their portunities, on the one hand, Haiti from spoliation, on the other." moral responsibility to protect Oil and United Fruit comProtracted efforts to induce the Sinclair would in Haiti failed because neither company panies to invest and commerce in their monthly formation on crops significant economic development this, however, did not produce remained oriented toward since most Occupation uplift programs attract American capital increation of circumstances that would vestment and this investment never materialized. Occupation officials In trying to attract capital investments, of offering profitable opfaced with the dilemma were always while simultaneously fulfilling their portunities, on the one hand, Haiti from spoliation, on the other." moral responsibility to protect Oil and United Fruit comProtracted efforts to induce the Sinclair would in Haiti failed because neither company panies to invest --- Page 206 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 agree to terms deemed conscionable The requirement that capital by the State Department. 6 Haiti and the United States investment be advantageous to both the problem of conflict of complicated all development plans, and even at the personal level. Financial interests involved Occupation officials drew up plans for a sisal Adviser Cumberland personally firm to develop sisal plantation and then induced an American to be a major economic production into what eventually turned out lously remained achievement of the Occupation. He scruputhe officially detached from the employ of the Haitian enterprise while in owner shortly after his return government but was taken in as a part no apparent to the United States." There was conspiracy to obtain undue concessions government in this case, but the from the clientprimary question of where interests as financial adviser Cumberland's berland also invested lay remains ambiguous. Cumheavily in Haitian names of his wife and mother, government bonds in the times when surplus and, since he determined the exact bonds on the government revenues would be used to open market, he was accused of having taken purchase advantage of his position as financial adviser. 8 improper Russell reported to Secretary of State High Commissioner of Cumberland's private bond Kellogg that he had approved expressed dealings, but Russell had surprise and disbelief when previously can businessmen's plot, led by confronted with an Ameriincident. Cumberland stated Roger L. Farnham, to expose the that he early to avoid implications that he deliberately sold the bonds cupation personnel was exploiting his a were subsequently forbidden position. Ocsecurities. The ambiguity of Cumberland's to invest in Haitian ambiguity of the entire occupation, role illustrates the larger bility for the interests of both the charged as it was with responsiThe balance between United States and Haiti. States interests was clearly emphasizing Haiti's interests and United with respect to the Haitian resolved in favor of the United States a 1907 Franco-Haitian import trade. The Occupation abrogated preferential tariff concessions commercial convention which had granted to French imports as compensation for 57 and Cumberland then sold said them that he had purchased $12,000 face value Series B bonds at 77 and a sold year later at 80; he then purchased Series B face bonds at Jan. 8, 1928. these at 88. SD 838.51A/76, Cumberland $10,000 to value Kellogg, interests and United with respect to the Haitian resolved in favor of the United States a 1907 Franco-Haitian import trade. The Occupation abrogated preferential tariff concessions commercial convention which had granted to French imports as compensation for 57 and Cumberland then sold said them that he had purchased $12,000 face value Series B bonds at 77 and a sold year later at 80; he then purchased Series B face bonds at Jan. 8, 1928. these at 88. SD 838.51A/76, Cumberland $10,000 to value Kellogg, --- Page 207 --- UPLIFT-SUCCESS AND FAILURE the fact that France Haitian exports while annually French purchased upward of 50 percent of percent of Haitian imports." 10 Prior products amounted to only about 5 vention, Secretary of State to the abrogation of this conment against a charge that Hughes had defended the State it was Departtries to give special tariff allowing Latin-American counee concessions to . the state of our commerce with France by asserting that by the fact that in 1923, Haiti is sufficiently indicated amounted to 84 imports from the United States into Haiti France percent of the total, whereas the into Haiti constituted but 4 32 11 imports from tion of the Haitian import percent." American dominatrade, which dated back to intervention, was further strengthened before the which, although by the 1926 tariff reform basically a revenue wines and perfumes, measure, increased duties on reducing duties traditionally imported from on certain products France, while States,12 Haitian imports from the imported from the United 75 percent of total imports United States averaged about United States amounted during the 1920s, while exports to the The to less than 10 percent of total primary factor in determining the exports. export economy and its reliance weakness of the Haitian dominance of coffee on French purchases was the as the single major preweather limited coffee export crop. When bad deteriorated, such production or when the international as it did during World War market Brazilian coffee valorization I and again when was ruined. collapsed in 1929, the Haitian Occupation officials attempted to economy by encouraging diversification of correct this weakness nique, headed by American agriculture. The Service Techman, who had recently returned agricultural expert Dr. George F. Freemented with pineapples, from a job in Indochina, experiucts. Freeman even tried bananas, cotton, and various other in to interest the United States prodselecting Haiti as a site for government own sphere of influence." 14 These developing "a rubber supply in its because most diversification efforts were largely unsuccessful tractive to bring in American opportunities were not sufficiently atunsophisticated in agricultural capital, and Haitians were either too ice Technique, moreover, techniques or indifferent. The Servwas poorly managed and attempting too broad a program for its overambitious in prosperous years in the mid-1920s, based capabilities. A series of on good coffee crops and in to interest the United States prodselecting Haiti as a site for government own sphere of influence." 14 These developing "a rubber supply in its because most diversification efforts were largely unsuccessful tractive to bring in American opportunities were not sufficiently atunsophisticated in agricultural capital, and Haitians were either too ice Technique, moreover, techniques or indifferent. The Servwas poorly managed and attempting too broad a program for its overambitious in prosperous years in the mid-1920s, based capabilities. A series of on good coffee crops and --- Page 208 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 decoffee market, were correctly high prices on the international Cumberland as "fortuitous" and not scribed by Financial Adviser improvement; in fact, coffee indicative of any permanent economic greater than during the period 1925-29 were only percent exports immediately preceding the intervention." for the four-year period coffee remained the basic export crop By the end of the occupation, in importance and bananas, although sisal production was growing were to become a originally encouraged by the Service Technique, of an export after 1935 subsequent to the granting major crop Fruit monopoly to the Standard Company." investment and In attempting to promote American officials capital realized that agriHaitian economic progress American advancement. culture would have to be the basis of any significant and effiPlans to introduce American capital, modern technology, the establishment of production all presupposed cient organization which were common features of foreign of large-scale plantations, other countries in the Caribbean region. investment enterprises in small farmFinancial Adviser Millspaugh noted that "Individualistic the use of capital, of irrigation, of skilled management, advoing precludes and High Commissioner Russell and of efficient marketing," whereby each peasant owned cated abolishing the Haitian system favor of large plantaand farmed his little plot of land in establishing involved the untions controlled by foreigners." This, however, freeholders would be repleasant likelihood that Haitian peasant observed that "The conduced to peonage. An American journalist American plantations elsewhere dition of the native workers on big better Latin America has not impressed me as appreciably 19 in peasants of Haiti." American than that of the small landholding expressed concern about the officials, including President Coolidge, indeed, the possibility of unfair exploitation of Haitian peasants; maintained wage few American plantations actually in operation and the largest the low rate of 20 cents per day levels at abysmally itself of all responsibility for its workers by firm, HASCO, absolved bosses. 20 subhiring through native gang forecasts and misgivings about Despite the dismal agricultural continually looked undesirable effects of plantations, the Occupation for promoting ecoagriculture as the primary means to plantation American capital investment and did nomic development and luring ed, the possibility of unfair exploitation of Haitian peasants; maintained wage few American plantations actually in operation and the largest the low rate of 20 cents per day levels at abysmally itself of all responsibility for its workers by firm, HASCO, absolved bosses. 20 subhiring through native gang forecasts and misgivings about Despite the dismal agricultural continually looked undesirable effects of plantations, the Occupation for promoting ecoagriculture as the primary means to plantation American capital investment and did nomic development and luring --- Page 209 --- UPLIFT-SUCCESS AND FAILURE investments. all it could to remove barriers to large-scale the agricultural Haitian courts, some One barrier to the latifundia solution was virtue of remained free from control by the Occupation by of which been a constant source of grief to Amerijudicial tenure. These had officer remarked in 1927 that can businessmen. A State Department because foreigners and local and almost solely it was "primarily deal in Haitian courts that business interests cannot secure a square The Occupation capital has been slow in going to Haiti."a foreign abolishing life tenure for judges through eliminated this problem by which allowed the client-govthe 1928 constitutional amendment ernment to revamp the courts. to plantation A related and much more substantial impediment of land into minuscule development was the long-standing division experienced freeholders. American companies plots held by peasant plots of land and in gaining clear great difficulty in buying up large solve this by court reform titles. The United States tried to problem which would have and by instituting a massive cadastral survey had legal docupermitted land consolidation since few dated peasants back to the division ments to prove their ownership, which in the early nineteenth cenof former French colonial plantations of a large part of the country tury." Marines took aerial photographs cadastral in 1925 and 1926 in preparation for the contemplated when the building in survey, but all negatives were destroyed down at night in an unexplained which they were stored burned involved fantastically complifire. The survey, which would have absence of legal given the almost complete cated legal proceedings land, was still in the planning stages at titles even for government The reluctance of American officials the time of the 1929 uprisings." the refusal of exploitation of peasants, as indicated by to permit to sell their lands to American comtreaty officials to force peasants the occupation prepanies, and fear of arousing the masses against redistribution problem." vented any summary solution of the land cautioned against pushing In early 1929 a State Department officer alienating "the mass of the cadastral survey too hard and thereby had "been hitherto either the Haitian people" who presumably in Haiti."2 25 Plantation developfriendly or indifferent to our policies limited by natural factors. Fiment was, in any case, inherently remarked that "Those who are fearful nancial Adviser Millspaugh to permit to sell their lands to American comtreaty officials to force peasants the occupation prepanies, and fear of arousing the masses against redistribution problem." vented any summary solution of the land cautioned against pushing In early 1929 a State Department officer alienating "the mass of the cadastral survey too hard and thereby had "been hitherto either the Haitian people" who presumably in Haiti."2 25 Plantation developfriendly or indifferent to our policies limited by natural factors. Fiment was, in any case, inherently remarked that "Those who are fearful nancial Adviser Millspaugh --- Page 210 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 take assurance from the fact that topographically of the future may conditions set rather definite limits to and economically Haitian development: 9> 26 plantation of deficient resources, contradictory With all the other problems and conflicts of financial priorities, fragmentary land distribution, remained to economic uplift programs interest, a major impediment itself. While the elite was ideologically hostile the Haitian peasantry the lived in an aland efficiency, peasants to American pragmatism which they had had few points of contogether different world in case Haitian laborers tact with modern American technology. In one to of American wheelbarrows were reported unloading a shipment balanced on the tops of their heads." Prevailhave carried them off of cultivation by hoe and ing agricultural techniques consisted American field ethnologist machete rather than by plow. In 1952 an had failed to successreported that, while technical aid programs in several areas had on fully introduce the plow, Haitian farmers in the late 1920s adopted plows left behind their own eventually During the occupation Ameriby defunct American companies." how to adapt their uplift cans did not appreciate or understand Financial Adviser Cumberprograms to peasant cultural traditions. the peasants imland expressed dismay and frustration on finding incentives: pervious to what seemed to him compelling profit failed to stimulate the peasants of Haiti to inattractive prices have Evidence is plentiful that the crease their production of coffee. . nature provides when the Haitian peasants merely pick such coffee as are above average. In the price is low and do the same thing when such prices minimum cultivation of cofformer case there is no abandonment of and in the latter case there is little fee as has traditionally been in vogue, of coffee already in production." impetus to improve the yield or quality field research among the peasantry disclosed strong In later years reasonable bases for reservations about profit motives and quite never effectively grappled with modern technology. The Occupation stimulate interest or the problem of how to draw upon or peasant cooperation. through the Service Technique, a systematic Americans did make, techniques. This was extraoreffort to introduce modern agricultural between peasant dinarily difficult because of the tremendous gap abandonment of and in the latter case there is little fee as has traditionally been in vogue, of coffee already in production." impetus to improve the yield or quality field research among the peasantry disclosed strong In later years reasonable bases for reservations about profit motives and quite never effectively grappled with modern technology. The Occupation stimulate interest or the problem of how to draw upon or peasant cooperation. through the Service Technique, a systematic Americans did make, techniques. This was extraoreffort to introduce modern agricultural between peasant dinarily difficult because of the tremendous gap --- Page 211 --- UPLIFT-SUCCESS AND FAILURE technology and American technology. skeptical about new machines and methods Peasants were basically civilization in general. The and about foreign white French colonists and the experiences of their ancestors with of 1918-19 did not more recent American forced-labor corvée methods and encourage confidence in the white motives. Americans, for their foreigners' for peasant technology and failed part, had little respect existing local skills and traditions. to adapt modern innovations to the Americans dearly in their Ironically, this weakness cost In 1929 Dr. own private agricultural Freeman, the chief American enterprises. ported to the State Department that agricultural expert, reventures had failed because many American agricultural the techniques promoters had been unwilling to employed by local people who study tions of practical experience, had, through generaParaphrasing Freeman's oral developed locally viable methods, recorded one aspect of the 1929 remarks, a State Department officer tives were raising cotton postmortem: e . today the nawhich were scientifically more successfully than the plantations was too consistently cultivated, as when land around the trees cotton trees had plowed and kept clean from weeds, etc. the [sic] a tendency to etc., but gave very meager results in develop bolls." 30 large branches, leaves, Here, as in other instances, Americans their own sense of racial and cultural were partly defeated by own superiority in contrast to superiority. Confident of their Americans were frequently obtuse "ignorant" and "uncivilized" blacks, In pointing to this failure in adapting to local conditions. appreciate on the part of American promoters to of his peasant ways, Freeman touched a own Service Technique, which upon basic weakness variety of sophisticated techniques, experimented with a wide were of little equipment, and new that practical use to the peasants. As crops some American observers, elaborate and was recognized by perimentation stations that expensive agricultural exwere of doubtful value when emphasized the most modern devices that the peasants needed cheap, technology they could work themselves." 81 primitive emphasis on modern plantation Here, again, the irrelevant since capital investment agriculture proved to be largely skepticism and indifference did not materialize. Peasant to vindicated when the 1929 American-style progress was in part depression, a function of modern eco- that practical use to the peasants. As crops some American observers, elaborate and was recognized by perimentation stations that expensive agricultural exwere of doubtful value when emphasized the most modern devices that the peasants needed cheap, technology they could work themselves." 81 primitive emphasis on modern plantation Here, again, the irrelevant since capital investment agriculture proved to be largely skepticism and indifference did not materialize. Peasant to vindicated when the 1929 American-style progress was in part depression, a function of modern eco- --- Page 212 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED effectively ended all hopes for economic developnomic interactions, coffee market, forcing the ment in Haiti by ruining the international and revert to subsistence peasants to dispense with cash crops farming. also conducted a program of vocational The Service Technique trained manpower necessary for education designed to provide This was the major conagricultural and industrial development. to Haitian education during tribution made by the United States as a facet of the ecothe occupation and was conceived primarily to increase program rather than as an attempt nomic development education. literacy or promote general of the few areas of government reGeneral education was one The 1930 Forbes Commission responsibility left to the Haitians. the treaty of 1915 the assistported to President Hoover: "Under for in the matter of ance of the United States was not provided and indirectly that the education, and it has been only recently this field." 82 Occupation has interested itself in American to further education prior to the 1922 The Occupation did nothing total for educaand by the late 1920s, expenditures reorganization, 10 percent of the Haitian budget compared tion amounted to only 15 percent of in Puerto Rico." By 1930 approximately to percent enrolled in some kind of school, while apHaitian children were remained illiterate, the proximately 95 percent of the population On several occasions as before the intervention." same percentage expressed concern about insuffiFinancial Adviser Cumberland but the American budgetary priorities ciency of funds for education precluded larger expenditures." education program of the technical The Occupation promoted Technique at the expense of tradiService the American-controlled education. The Haitian-controlled Departtional Haitian classical which directed general education along ment of Public Instruction, lines, had ten times as many students traditional French classical of the money allocated to the but received less than 40 percent education." 86 In 1930 the Service Technique for manual/technical public schools was 70 student-teacher ratio in Haitian-controlled from $4 to $6 per to 1 and rural schoolteachers were usually paid financed The Service Technique, in contrast, was adequately month. salaries for beginning Haitian instrucfor the scope of its activities; ian-controlled Departtional Haitian classical which directed general education along ment of Public Instruction, lines, had ten times as many students traditional French classical of the money allocated to the but received less than 40 percent education." 86 In 1930 the Service Technique for manual/technical public schools was 70 student-teacher ratio in Haitian-controlled from $4 to $6 per to 1 and rural schoolteachers were usually paid financed The Service Technique, in contrast, was adequately month. salaries for beginning Haitian instrucfor the scope of its activities; --- Page 213 --- UPLIFT-SUCCESS AND FAILURE tors started at $30 education per month," American emphasis on was the embodiment of American vocational elitism and efficiency, while concepts of technical classical education reflected corresponding disparagement of Haitian refnement of the Haitian elite. American aversion to the idealism and also exactly paralleled the The technical-vocational orientation as opposed to general education Tuskegee Institute model for vocational High Commissioner for blacks in the United States. Haitian education the Russell observed that as a result of classical rather than "young men of Haiti have been toward, productive industry" and guided from, led to training for careers in the that classical studies needed was agriculturists and skilled professions, when what Haiti really American view, Haiti already had workers,"8 According to the lawyers, and civil servants, who, in an overabundance of doctors, tionary class, while the country any case, constituted a revoluto increase production and desperately needed skilled workers The Haitian national wealth. 39 elite, which traditionally prided refinement and sophistication in French itself on educational American vocational education belles lettres, abhorred tions of racial inferiority and, moreover, resented the implicafor blacks in the Southern associated with manual training programs ton's Tuskegee United States under Booker T. Institute system. 40 His Washingfor success at menial trades and exhortation to blacks to strive with the premises of the forgo intellectual pursuits fitted in Tuskegee faculty predominated Occupation's educational policies, and sions which the State on the several American commisHaiti. Department sent to investigate education in Dr. Freeman reported that Haitian training too; they claimed that they peasants resisted vocational culture, and those already knew all about agritheir children wanted peasants who were interested in education for go into the and them to learn to read and write SO city get jobs. 41 Since the they could its technical education Service Technique began of training Haitian program at an advanced level in the teachers, the illiterate hope posed to be the eventual beneficiaries, peasants, who were suption, and initial drafts of were excluded from participafrom the educated city elite. agricultural students had to be procured overcome by offering students Elite hostility to manual work was sufficient monetary incentives in the about agritheir children wanted peasants who were interested in education for go into the and them to learn to read and write SO city get jobs. 41 Since the they could its technical education Service Technique began of training Haitian program at an advanced level in the teachers, the illiterate hope posed to be the eventual beneficiaries, peasants, who were suption, and initial drafts of were excluded from participafrom the educated city elite. agricultural students had to be procured overcome by offering students Elite hostility to manual work was sufficient monetary incentives in the --- Page 214 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED The director of the American School in Portform of scholarships. students were "virtually hired to go au-Prince remarked that elite six times the wages earned by by means of scholarships, at five or for example, the salary the fathers of many of them and equal to, in the hospitals." ?2 42 paid to surgeons vocational schools were instructed in Elite students attending and and of technical subjects, such as chemistry agronomy, a variety manual farm labor and shopwork. Dr. were required to perform of elite to manual labor, exFreeman, who was well aware hostility and partake in the horted students to repudiate their prejudices glory of manual labor: in the Service Technique for a man who We therefor, have no place with his hands. The strong, steady, and is afraid or ashamed to work of all industry. . Give skilled hand is the first and primary requisite who are not ashamed of honest who know labor. Give us men us men and studied your natI first travelled over your country toil . . . when rich in fertility, capable of loading thouural resources, I found valleys, cotton, bananas, pineapples, and sands of steamers with cargoes of sugar, there sprung to my thought that other fruits. . . . How appropriately "The harvest is ripe but the reapers are expression of our Holy Master few." 48 for clean stables, learn carpentry in Students were to care cows, off into the interior as teachService Technique shops, and then go the 1929 student strikes, after ers in rural farm schools. On the eve of had developed a netfive years of operation, the Service Technique and 8,848 students; but student work of 68 schools with 256 teachers and the project was vociferhostility had still not been overcome, both Haitian and Ameriously denounced by almost all observers, can." agency for agriOriginally conceived as a broad, comprehensive Technique had engaged cultural and industrial uplift, the Service as the ambitious of experiments as well in all manner agricultural The Occupation had provided it with vocational education program. support; but Freeman, who was ample funds and complete political concentrate his activities on feasifailed to a poor administrator." ended in failure. In 1931 a State ble projects, and most ventures conversation in which Roger L. FarnDepartment officer recorded a ility had still not been overcome, both Haitian and Ameriously denounced by almost all observers, can." agency for agriOriginally conceived as a broad, comprehensive Technique had engaged cultural and industrial uplift, the Service as the ambitious of experiments as well in all manner agricultural The Occupation had provided it with vocational education program. support; but Freeman, who was ample funds and complete political concentrate his activities on feasifailed to a poor administrator." ended in failure. In 1931 a State ble projects, and most ventures conversation in which Roger L. FarnDepartment officer recorded a --- Page 215 --- UPLIFT-SUCCESS AND FAILURE the Service Technique as having been "so woefully ham criticized conceived and executed, and with mismanaged, SO extravagantly that anything associated with it such negligible practical results exception. > 46 An American was detested by the Haitians without returned from Haiti stopped treaty administrator who had recently according to W. R. Scott off at the State Department in 1929 and, "dwelt at some length and of the Division of Latin American Affairs, which he described with some bitterness" on the Service Technique, its activities over much with meager results, spread as having spent items, and otherwise discredited itself; a wide range of unimportant and stated that Amerihe characterized Dr. Freeman as incompetent both Haitians and experts were considered a joke by can agricultural the were that American Americans. 47 Other criticisms of program lecture through student instructors did not know French and had to in relation to and that these teachers were overpaid interpreters, their value to Haiti." like most of the uplift programs, American educational efforts, in policy objectives and by were hampered by basic contradictions of the United States atracial and cultural difficulties. The perplexity Hoover's disillustrated when President titude was dramatically Haitian education, headed by tinguished commission to investigate Institute, could not obtain President Robert R. Moton of Tuskegee the educators on the compassage to Haiti on Navy ships because served as an ironic capstone to mission were black. This incident of Tuskegee-type vocathe Occupation's systematic sponsorship Haitian critics, was rooted in tional education, which, according to commercial transportation racial discrimination. In arranging for been promised for the Moton Commission, which had originally G. Munro of the Division passage on a United States warship, Dana and comAmerican Affairs referred to "the embarrassment of Latin would ensue if we asked the Navy to provide acplications which in Haiti for commodations" 33 49 When the commission was stranded the navy evasively offered a minelack of return transportation, inadequate for with two berths that was obviously sweeping tug that "I feel that the people the ten-man party. Moton complained of the United States will reof Haiti as well as the colored people returned >50 The commission eventually gard this as a humiliation." on a commercial ship. and comAmerican Affairs referred to "the embarrassment of Latin would ensue if we asked the Navy to provide acplications which in Haiti for commodations" 33 49 When the commission was stranded the navy evasively offered a minelack of return transportation, inadequate for with two berths that was obviously sweeping tug that "I feel that the people the ten-man party. Moton complained of the United States will reof Haiti as well as the colored people returned >50 The commission eventually gard this as a humiliation." on a commercial ship. --- Page 216 --- 1915-1934 STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, UNITED which played a major role in The moribund Service Technique, to the 1929 strikes and riots, hostilities that led directly and frustration. As an generating to be a center of antagonism a modern technical basis, continued Haitian society on In terms of the for reorienting agency proved to be a major disappointment. technocratic efficiency, it certainly of uplifting Haiti through were much American purpose of the Occupation Material the material accomplishments the efforts at human persuasion. case, than success in any more impressive ultimate criterion for American to progress was the found it much easier and more administrative comfortable hierand the Occupation projects and rationalize of human interbuild new construction with people in subtle areas public archies than to cope including roads, and list of The physical sccomplichments. agencies action. efficient government limitations. works, health improvements, despite persistent budgetary disinteformidable by rapid such, was quite year followed of which was a watershed the Eighth Annual Report In 1929, programs, substantial accomgration of the Occupation's Commissioner" 61 listed these the American High except for the plishments: of order for fourteen years, the establish- (1) The maintenance and the 1929 riots, through was a soundly pre-1920 caco uprisings force. The Garde d'Haiti ment of an efficient police devoid of graft, which had commissioner, characterized administered organization According to the high of the handithe pre-1915 Haitian army. in the face 99 had been "accomplished the . . . this achievement and tradition of people bonded indebtedcaps of the mentality Anances had been systematized. stabilized (2) Haitian had been permanently reduced, and the currency ness of five gourdes to the dollar. Works Departat the rate had created a strong Public efficient personnel. (8) The Occupation procedures and ment with proper accounting definite public works organization, there had been no port facilities, Prior to 1915 cities and towns, poor had roads connecting The telephone system no passable rudimentary telegraph service. miles of roads e utilizable and only built 1,000 failed in 1911. The Occupation was turned over to the unpaved. Haitians, when the Public Works Department fve miles were, however, * By 1931, had been completed. All but of Haiti, Publio Works 1,075 miles of deteriorated roads quickly in later years. Republic trans.), pp. 57, 62. These roads Annual Report, 1930-1931 (English Administration, had roads connecting The telephone system no passable rudimentary telegraph service. miles of roads e utilizable and only built 1,000 failed in 1911. The Occupation was turned over to the unpaved. Haitians, when the Public Works Department fve miles were, however, * By 1931, had been completed. All but of Haiti, Publio Works 1,075 miles of deteriorated roads quickly in later years. Republic trans.), pp. 57, 62. These roads Annual Report, 1930-1931 (English Administration, --- Page 217 --- UPLIFT-SUCCESS AND FAILURE by motor vehicles and 210 bridges 1929 there were nearly 3,000 totaling 5,870 feet in length. In had installed a modern automobiles in Haiti. The Occupation distance telephone system with 1,250 miles of service, a telegraph system, and a longwere judged significant aids to radio station. All these Works Department had commerce, In addition, the Public ings, squares, and improved and beautified many public buildd'Haiti parks, built new schools, hospitals, and buildings, and constructed twelve of Garde houses plus nine wharfs. Haiti's sixteen lightsince French colonial Irrigation, which had been nonexistent times, was revived over 100 miles of functioning ditches. with the development of were overhauled. While Municipal water systems also ments in the field of emphasizing the considerable accomplishthat "The work has been public works, the High Commissioner added revenues. An retarded due to the insufficiency of enormous task still faces the 99 these (4) The Public Health Service set department . fully equipped up and operated eleven modhospitals, a medical and sma rural plus traveling clinics. hospital training school, in the reduction of Important advances had been made ticing in Haiti, 42 diseases, such as malaria. Of 159 physicians pracService. In 1929 the percent were employed by the Public Health Under the Service administered 1,341,000 auspices of the Occupation, treatments. tions contributed private American organizathe Rockefeller significantly to this humanitarian effort. In 1929 Foundation and the American Red $52,000 to augment the $916,000 Cross contributed ment revenues. Nevertheless, provided out of Haitian governbudgetary limitations. The here again there were difficulties with Health work had been "limited high commissioner observed that Public funds." and handicapped" by "insufficient (5) The Service Technique had, in addition to maintained five experiment operating schools, 35 agents, and stations, an agricultural extension with healed 315,267 veterinary clinics which, in the past five animals. The Service years, had soil surveys of Technique had also States 107,000 acres and sent 10 completed for university study. students to the United These material tistical reports and achievements, which looked SO attractive in stathe on progress charts, created the Occupation was doing well, while the failures impression that in many areas of 5) The Service Technique had, in addition to maintained five experiment operating schools, 35 agents, and stations, an agricultural extension with healed 315,267 veterinary clinics which, in the past five animals. The Service years, had soil surveys of Technique had also States 107,000 acres and sent 10 completed for university study. students to the United These material tistical reports and achievements, which looked SO attractive in stathe on progress charts, created the Occupation was doing well, while the failures impression that in many areas of --- Page 218 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 political and cultural interaction were largely unnoticed in Washington and by the Occupation Command in Port-au-Prince. The substantial and ongoing progress in material construction and rationalization of government agencies, along with the aforementioned economic and educational programs, were rudely disrupted by the 1929 strikes and riots. --- Page 219 --- Strikes and Riots High Commissioner In the years following the 1922 reorganization, Borno, exRussell, assisted by the collaboration of client-President and impleauthoritarian control over the occupation ercised rigid with little regard for opmented the various American programs dissident American subordinates. position from Haitians or from indicated continued progRussell's reports to the State Department development of the public works projects, ress in debt retirement, of the Gendarmerie. Russell and Service Technique, and training attributed the continuing hostility other leading American officials been cut off from the of the Haitian elite to resentment at having patriotic motives. spoils of public office rather than to any compelling withdrawal for American While ostensibly making preparations departments the of the treaty in 1936, most Occupation at expiration of responsibility and no effort did not promote Haitians to positions base of the client-government. was made to broaden the political later stated that he had tried Financial Adviser W. W. Cumberland waste of time because work with Haitians but that this was a to "in my four years experience in Haitians had nothing to contribute: constructive Minister of Finance made one single Haiti not a single commercial or financial subject." 29 suggestion on any economic, the most of President Borno's The Occupation, while making concurrently sought wholehearted cooperation and submissiveness, possessed a dethe illusion that the client-government to promote The most notable assertion of clientgree of independent authority. tried Financial Adviser W. W. Cumberland waste of time because work with Haitians but that this was a to "in my four years experience in Haitians had nothing to contribute: constructive Minister of Finance made one single Haiti not a single commercial or financial subject." 29 suggestion on any economic, the most of President Borno's The Occupation, while making concurrently sought wholehearted cooperation and submissiveness, possessed a dethe illusion that the client-government to promote The most notable assertion of clientgree of independent authority. --- Page 220 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 government independence involved a widely cident during which Borno dramatically publicized 1927 inUnited States Senator William barred a visit to Haiti by ponent of the occupation. H. King of Utah, a long-time opinsisted that they had Both Russell and the State Department that they were urged Borno not to exclude Senator King but the Haitian and powerless to interfere, and the incident in American press as a bold assertion of appeared ereignty. Years later Financial Adviser Haitian SOVhe had initiated the whole affair Cumberland disclosed that to Borno as a ploy to by suggesting the King exclusion from being prove Haitian independence. Borno was far dependent independent of American control, and was upon American protection for his completely continuance in office. In a popular joke personal safety and Americans in Port-au-Prince Borno among both Haitians and tlemen, if you move the marine was rumored to have said, "Genout to the aviation field, I barracks from the rear of my move the palace marine barracks, named Caserne palace along with you,"s The president, were located on the Dartiguenave after the first clientdent's palace. grounds directly back of the PresiAlthough the years following the installation of commissioner were peaceful and orderly, this Russell as high marked increase in American did not indicate any effect, mainly as a reminder of popularity. Martial law remained in day-to-day governing instrument. American authority rather than as a provost courts for The use of American trying Haitian civilians military 911 cases in 1920 to no cases at all from declined from a high of tions against the and 1926 to 1929. Manifestato occupation the journalistic attacks in the client-government were limited were frequently jailed without opposition press, for which editors trial, and to strations, as when Borno was publicly booed infrequent public demonvisit to the United on his States in 1926. - Except for departure for a garrison in the background and keeping the marine clashes with Haitians, the instructing marines to avoid overt lar. Deference to Occupation did little to make itself popucommunal elections, popular which opinion was minimal, During the 1926 did request that American were subsequently rescinded, Borno practice be temporarily pulled warships back using Gonaïves Bay for target 0 Borno's arrival in New York because their presence tended also was marred by a hostile demonstration. on his States in 1926. - Except for departure for a garrison in the background and keeping the marine clashes with Haitians, the instructing marines to avoid overt lar. Deference to Occupation did little to make itself popucommunal elections, popular which opinion was minimal, During the 1926 did request that American were subsequently rescinded, Borno practice be temporarily pulled warships back using Gonaïves Bay for target 0 Borno's arrival in New York because their presence tended also was marred by a hostile demonstration. --- Page 221 --- STRIKES AND RIOTS to hurt the client-governments were taken to win chances, but few popular support. 7 The positive measures Charles Lindbergh to goodwill visit of Colonel ture of Port-au-Prince in 1928, a rare friendship and respect, was partly American gesing of the elite Cercle Bellevue Club for counteracted by the closoccupation a week before. political opposition to the Instead of seeking to win popular and in the occupation by making support widen participation rigidly authoritarian and exclusive concessions, Russell maintained the even with respect to divergent character of his administration, officials, Financial Adviser Arthur viewpoints C. among American treaty for having disagreed with Russell's Millspaugh, who was dismissed missioner's relationship with him policies, wrote: "The High Comto exclude practically all other [Borno] has been SO intimate as and Haitians. salutary contacts between Americans Moreover, the Occupation has manner as to set itself apart, not only from the functioned in such a the body of the government. '2 8 people but also from Millspaugh's successor, Sidney de la Rue, found among Occupation officials and their wives in the wake bitter animosity paugh-Russell feud and noted that "all the of the Millsthe fight including all the soreheads people who had been in are still here.". who hate the General [Russell]), The unwillingness of the creased Haitian Occupation to take steps leading to inment participation in politics and was most clearly demonstrated eventual self-governsion of democratic by Russell's continued institutions and his suppresas client-president despite the determination to retain Borno Department. The department, which growing apprehension of the State the popularly elected legislature, hoped eventually to reconvene persisted in emphasizing became vaguely uneasy as Russell sell's steadfast military force and authoritarian rule. Rusdependence on force rather than unpleasantly apparent when he requested that persuasion became barked for Nicaraguan duty in 350 marines em- "constructive work early 1927 be returned in time for the contemplated for next winter, modifying of the present constitution including, perhaps, needed reforms in the and drastic, but much ment officer judiciary system of Haiti.' 22 10 A State expressed alarm at this Departand stressed that the important "unfortunately worded" message thing was to avoid violence, noting military force and authoritarian rule. Rusdependence on force rather than unpleasantly apparent when he requested that persuasion became barked for Nicaraguan duty in 350 marines em- "constructive work early 1927 be returned in time for the contemplated for next winter, modifying of the present constitution including, perhaps, needed reforms in the and drastic, but much ment officer judiciary system of Haiti.' 22 10 A State expressed alarm at this Departand stressed that the important "unfortunately worded" message thing was to avoid violence, noting --- Page 222 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF that HAITI, 1915-1934 Russell, in a personal of the violent methods conversation, "seemed totally oblivious" work" implicit in his dispatch." The proposed by Russell for the winter of "constructive visions of the Haitian Constitution 1927-28 involved rethe authority of the that would further strengthen office. Occupation and ensure Borno's continuance in Borno had been reelected to a second under the provisions of the four-year term in 1926 1918. The 1918 Constitution American-sponsored Constitution of "an even-numbered year" to be suspended legislative elections until and it delegated legislative designated by the client-president, functions, which included president, to a Council of State election of the was thus reelected appointed by the president. Borno had by a group of his own political allies whom personally appointed to the Council of State. he tional amendments included The 1928 constituto six years, which would an extension of the presidential term against the likelihood that safeguard the Borno's continuance in office popular elections in 1930. Other Occupation would be forced to call of the press and jury trials would provisions be stipulated that freedom Borno's Council of State, and that regulated by laws passed by months from the "Within a period of twelve publication of the tive Power is authorized to present amendments the Execupresent personnel of the proceed to make all changes in the further amendment Courts that he deems necessary."12 A permitted proposed by Russell and Borno that Borno to seek still another term would have State Department. 18 was forbidden by the Russell advocated having Borno's Council of constitutional amendments, but the State State adopt the the amendments be passed Department insisted that done in the case of the 1918 by a national plebiscite, as had been lature, the only body legally Constitution when the Haitian legisstitution, proved hostile to competent to tamper with the Conalso objected to the extension American of purposes." The department nated the clause Borno's term to six years and elimiproviding for his action was out of the reelection, but severe restraining both Borno and question since this would have compromised Russell, who had the department proceeded on the that approved of the assumption action of forbidding Borno's amendments. Even the limited reelection was described in a Division , the only body legally Constitution when the Haitian legisstitution, proved hostile to competent to tamper with the Conalso objected to the extension American of purposes." The department nated the clause Borno's term to six years and elimiproviding for his action was out of the reelection, but severe restraining both Borno and question since this would have compromised Russell, who had the department proceeded on the that approved of the assumption action of forbidding Borno's amendments. Even the limited reelection was described in a Division --- Page 223 --- STRIKES AND RIOTS American Affairs memorandum as "extremely unfortunate, of Latin Russell must suffer for the prestige of President Borno or General Washof the " 15 Despite misgivings in by the action Department: the provision for extension of ington, the amendments, including in 1928 and passed by Borno's term, were submitted to a plebiscite negative." 16 The departa vote of 177,436 affirmative as against 3,799 legislative elections persisted in favoring early ment subsequently from Russell, who continued to oppose and procured assurances call for elections in 1930 and that he elections, that Borno would reelection under any circumstances." would not be a candidate for had to be made The State Department felt that some beginnings for the in the government in preparation in popular participation of American troops in 1936 and disapproved scheduled withdrawal under character of the present arrangement of "the anomalous the legislature and the latter which the President appoints the 1930 elections drew elects the President, >> but as the time for could not reconcile the officials found that they closer department elections with the imminent certainty long-range plan for popular at the polls, and the elecof a disastrous defeat for the Occupation of the 18 In rationalizing the postponement tions were postponed. the Division of Latin American Affairs reiterelections the chief of Haitians were too ignorant to vote, ated the familiar argument that for anti-American that elections would only provide would opportunities be feasible after just a few propaganda, and that elections more years of American uplift: furthermore, whether an election held at present It is very doubtful, value in training the Haitian people for would have any appreciable of voters are still too ignorant and too self-government. The masses A continuance for a relatively short much out of touch with the world. including the opening time of the development work now in of progress, the peasants in the new rural of roads and trails and the education schools, will work a great change in this respect." While the United States persisted in rationalizing and "out authoritarian of touch," control by claiming that Haitians were "ignorant" remedial or palliative there was still no inclination to undertake illiteracy and educate voters measures. Instead of trying to reduce the Occupation's eduin democratic procedures and responsibilities, self-government. The masses A continuance for a relatively short much out of touch with the world. including the opening time of the development work now in of progress, the peasants in the new rural of roads and trails and the education schools, will work a great change in this respect." While the United States persisted in rationalizing and "out authoritarian of touch," control by claiming that Haitians were "ignorant" remedial or palliative there was still no inclination to undertake illiteracy and educate voters measures. Instead of trying to reduce the Occupation's eduin democratic procedures and responsibilities, --- Page 224 --- OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED STATES train194 focused on manual and technical remained insensitive to public cational program remained grossly as with ing. Likewise, the Occupation to reach the Haitian public, relations. It had the means effective in rallying popular enthusiasm which later proved SO the Americans in Haiti failed radios Revolution, but the reduring the Algerian After ffteen years Occupation sponto use them imaginatively." there had been no officially monolith; or self-demained an authoritarian movement toward democracy sored or even sanctioned dramatic retermination. United States was forced to a Within six months the elections in the face of the versal of its decision to postpone President Borno's October, 1929, factor pro- in strikes and riots. Indeed, the elections was an important by nouncement canceling justified the cancellation Borno publicly fomenting the uprisings. stating: blindfolded politicians, conof the opposing parties, in disguising In the groups slaves of their passions, have persisted and have created, demned to remain enterprises of the Government, moved and creduthe most laudable in the midsts of people easily the worst impulsions of through their plottings state of mind, propitious to lous, a dangerous disorder." of elections was comdissatisfaction over the cancellation would be retained by Popular fear that Borno pounded by the widespread another term as client-president. its highthe Occupation for had long been engendered by anDistrust of the Occupation problems. General Russell, handedness in dealing with political from the Haitian elite and American noyed by continuing opposition the 1920s, often responded the cantanker- State Deantt-imperialists throughout by 1927 letter to the Nation, suppressed and temper," ously. In a "too much petulance as because it displayed the Service Technique partment attacked an article criticizing reader could hardly Russell foolish that an intelligent motive for its pubbeing "so childishly and wonder at the underlying of the article is obfail to be amused charged that "The purpose s9 21 Dissident lication," and angrily the United States Government." in viously to discredit which included receivers set up used its radio network, and public health information. The Occupation to disseminate agricultural peasant marketplaces, to the Nation, suppressed and temper," ously. In a "too much petulance as because it displayed the Service Technique partment attacked an article criticizing reader could hardly Russell foolish that an intelligent motive for its pubbeing "so childishly and wonder at the underlying of the article is obfail to be amused charged that "The purpose s9 21 Dissident lication," and angrily the United States Government." in viously to discredit which included receivers set up used its radio network, and public health information. The Occupation to disseminate agricultural peasant marketplaces, --- Page 225 --- STRIKES AND RIOTS for the opposition press in Haiti were in no way journalists writing of the and were frequently arshielded from the wrath Occupation President Borno. Since rested by the Gendarmerie on orders from carried out without Borno's orders to the Gendarmerie were not in effect, of General Russell, these arrests were, the prior approval under martial ordered by Russell. a Despite rigid press censorship against about a dozen journals kept up a constant agitation law, as seven editors were in jail the Occupation and sometimes as many minister to Washington at the same time. Charles Moravia, a former traveler in 1928 that he and editor of Le Temps, told an American and had 120 days in had been jailed four times without trial made spent into literary jail in the previous year." 22 Some editors were their resulting by frequent jailings and later capitalized on martyrs the elections that followed the 1929 uprisings. popularity during which raised a feeble dissenting voice The opposition newspapers, far more than their otherwise closed society, were persecuted in an even went to the trouble of importance warranted. The Occupation from the wire services SO that censoring incoming news reports would not reach the foreign news unfavorable to the Occupation Christian Gross reported opposition press. In 1927 American Chargé and outgoing telecensorship of both incoming the Occupation's in addition to the wire service censorship: grams of to confine agitators of a local press to a semblance disIn an endeavor have been requested to use their truth local telegraph companies of an absurd and politically defamatory cretion about receiving messages of Department of the Interior nature and if in doubt to request approval without question all business before sending, Local companies sending the truth.2 messages also all news items which approach tended to be irresponsible in spreadWhile the opposition press considered offensive by the Occupation ing rumors, most editorials tending toward veiled sarcasm, were fairly innocuous, with criticism Declaration of Independence with such as printing the American of the One chief of the Gendarmerie, a marine instructions colonel, wrote from the the commandant President I always Marine Corps in 1927: "When I get any on such orders before carrying them out." have to get General Russell's approval A. Lejeune, Mar. 14, 1927; Lejeune MSS, ConJ. S. Turrill, COL, USMC, to John tainer 4. most editorials tending toward veiled sarcasm, were fairly innocuous, with criticism Declaration of Independence with such as printing the American of the One chief of the Gendarmerie, a marine instructions colonel, wrote from the the commandant President I always Marine Corps in 1927: "When I get any on such orders before carrying them out." have to get General Russell's approval A. Lejeune, Mar. 14, 1927; Lejeune MSS, ConJ. S. Turrill, COL, USMC, to John tainer 4. --- Page 226 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 appropriate passages underlined as a tion tyranny. Prior to 1920 all criticism protest against alleged Occupabeen strictly forbidden but of the Occupation had sorship from within the United later, with denunciations of press ceninclination toward States and the State Department's liberalizing the somewhat eased. 25 In any case, Haitian occupation, editors restrictions were rested since they pressed the limits of Russell's continued to be arthese happened to be. With the tolerance, whatever constituted a minor nuisance exception of the few journalists who Borno and whose jailings made Russell appear despotic in both Haiti and the United and Occupation effectively suppressed all dissent. States, the nationalist agitators, such as Joseph Jolibois Vociferous Haitian America denouncing the United fils, who toured Latin elect Hoover's 1928 States in the wake of PresidentThe stolid goodwill trip, had to operate from abroad. effectively domination of the Occupation, which had for SO controlled Haiti with SO little overt long by explosive political and economic forces resistance, was broken fall of 1929. Economic distress which converged in the increases in government caused by falling coffee prices and the taxes were coupled with discontent postponement of the 1930 legislative elections and over continuance of Borno as the apparent the latent hatred of the client-president. These factors exacerbated condescension and boorish Occupation inspired by American racial 1928, the collapse of the coffee military dictation. A poor coffee crop in of migrant labor market in 1929, and the restriction Occupation's emigration to Cuba were compounded the policy of pressing new tax collections. by 1929, unbeknown to complacent officials By the fall of popular discontent in Haiti needed and the State Department, into a major uprising only a rallying point to develop against the was provided by a series of student Occupation. This rallying point Technique. strikes against the Service The student strikes began in late dents at the Service October, 1929, when the stuDamien walked out in Technique's a body central agricultural college at scholarships for city students and protesting a reduction in incentive ships for field work, Students in the corresponding increases in scholarfollowed in a sympathy medical college and law out the strike, and the strike college nation to both public and quickly spread throughprivate schools. Idle students point to develop against the was provided by a series of student Occupation. This rallying point Technique. strikes against the Service The student strikes began in late dents at the Service October, 1929, when the stuDamien walked out in Technique's a body central agricultural college at scholarships for city students and protesting a reduction in incentive ships for field work, Students in the corresponding increases in scholarfollowed in a sympathy medical college and law out the strike, and the strike college nation to both public and quickly spread throughprivate schools. Idle students --- Page 227 --- STRIKES AND RIOTS about in the streets for a period of five weeks while General milled to meliorate the situation by conceding Russell tried unsuccessfully rates. Student demonstraa substantial raise in student scholarship the widely despised tors focused their hostility on Dr. Freeman, his home in Port-auhead of the Service Technique, and stoned by the Garde, parade dispersed Prince as part of an unauthorized rallied around the cry "A bas while elsewhere striking students and paraded Freeman's effigy Freeman!" (Down with Freemanl) and distressed by in the streets." Freeman himself was surprised 1930 Forbes Commisthe strikes and recalled to President Hoover's disaffection: "There sion that he had misjudged the extent of student had trust, in fact, it in whom I great was one young man especially almost cried, he swore he would go hurt me SO badly at the time I their action and then became a down and restrain the boys in leader." 99 27 the opinion that "the Commissioner Russell later expressed High according to Latin and European striking students were acting students take a prominent part in tradition which prescribes that stuaction." 99 He described the strikes as "a petty radical political used disgruntled politicians, the dents' affair" which was being by Haitian nationalists "outs," to undermine the Occupation.? 28 In fact, of much exercised over the cancellation of all ages were already being foisted upon them for a elections and the prospect of Borno's of course, made third term. Opposition agitators and newspapers, the most of the situation. 29 strikes, supported by French By the end of November the student schools, was widening to inCatholic brothers and sisters in Catholic Borno issued clude the threat of a general strike. 30 In mid-November that he would not seek a third term and on December a declaration that the State Department publicly confirm 2 Russell requested unrest, but these noncandidacy in order to quiet popular Borno's 8 Russell reported to the State moves were inadequate. On December businessmen were aligning themDepartment that politicians and of the Carde was "very quesselves with the strikers, that the loyalty 500 marines would be imtionable," and that an additional force of mediately required to protect American lives. began with morning the expected general uprising The following in Port-au-Prince. A large, angry mob a strike by customs employees that the State Department publicly confirm 2 Russell requested unrest, but these noncandidacy in order to quiet popular Borno's 8 Russell reported to the State moves were inadequate. On December businessmen were aligning themDepartment that politicians and of the Carde was "very quesselves with the strikers, that the loyalty 500 marines would be imtionable," and that an additional force of mediately required to protect American lives. began with morning the expected general uprising The following in Port-au-Prince. A large, angry mob a strike by customs employees --- Page 228 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 customs strike and by the end of the gathered at the site of the with excited people day the streets of Port-au-Prince were crowded been called out to reinforce who stoned marine patrols which had noted that the marines Financial Adviser de la Rue the Garde."" had been called out just in time: stood silently by or had walked around shaking hands the Garde had their hats politely to lady agitators, etc. It with leaders and tipping to the Americans SO much as they seemed that they were not disloyal who had no idea of what to do were just dumb, low-class nigger the boys minute the marines got busy, the to handle an angry crowd . Garde stiffened up. . 33 spread quickly throughout the country. In The general uprising unable to handle 1,000 demonstrators Cap Haîtien, the Garde was and several towns in the Cayes without the support of marine patrols around American thousands of peasants gathering district reported A bas Freeman!" 84 On December outposts shouting "A bas Bornol to the commandant of Commander R. M. Cutts reported more 4, Brigade that the loyalty of the Garde was "becoming the Marine Corps of "re-occupation of outlydoubtful" and envisioned the possibility supplied with autoimportant towns by Marine forces, heavily ing 5 85 matic shoulder weapons. Russell reacted to the uprisings by reinvoking High Commissioner interdicting the opposition press, which curfew and martial law, by December 5 to 16, by canceling the suspended publication from Carde d'Haiti and incorporating it as a independent status of the Carde reinof the Marine Brigade, and by dispatching regiment Petit Goâve, and Leogane, where their timely forcements to Jacmel, 86 The Hoover administration, arrival thwarted attempted uprisings. policy toward Latin which was trying to develop a Good Neighbor and ordered Rusall these developments America, was appalled by the uprisings. Secresell to exercise utmost restraint in suppressing 4 that the of State Stimson cabled Russell on December tary consider that the situation warranted a declaradepartment did not necessary for the protection tion of martial law unless "absolutely had already reinstituted of lives, P9 and on December 5, after Russell have faith in the loyalty of the martial law, Stimson urged him to the and to keep cool, adding: "I seriously question black troops Good Neighbor and ordered Rusall these developments America, was appalled by the uprisings. Secresell to exercise utmost restraint in suppressing 4 that the of State Stimson cabled Russell on December tary consider that the situation warranted a declaradepartment did not necessary for the protection tion of martial law unless "absolutely had already reinstituted of lives, P9 and on December 5, after Russell have faith in the loyalty of the martial law, Stimson urged him to the and to keep cool, adding: "I seriously question black troops --- Page 229 --- STRIKES AND RIOTS martial deleted] yesterday as to wisdom of the ['your' proclamation in an it seems that the benefit of such a proclamation law. To me like Haiti is outweighed by the unfortunate illiterate population United States, particularly as you state that effect produced in the >> 87 martial law was already in force." and to withStimson advised Russell to rescind the proclamation send out reinforcefrom exposed places rather than draw Americans five hundred marines were ments. As a precautionary measure, Haitian duty, but these men would embarked at Norfolk for possible relucin dire emergency, since Stimson was "extremely be used only of the Marine Brigade" and felt that tant to increase the strength would rise to sensational "the sending of additional forces s 88 give reports regarding the Haitian situation." of December 6. All this was before the disastrous Cayes massacre machetes, and armed with stones, Fifteen hundred angry peasants, marines armed with rifles clubs, surrounded a detachment of twenty had out to meet the automatic 39 The marines gone and weapons." on the town intent on securing the peasants, who were advancing before and on airing various release of prisoners arrested the day complaints about against the Occupation, including grievances and other taxes. Marine airplanes had dropped alcohol, tobacco, to awe the local population bombs in Cayes harbor in an attempt apparently had the into submissiveness, but this demonstration A effect of creating terror and frenetic excitement." undesired attempted to persuade the mob district marine officer unsuccessfully account given by two marine to retire, but then, according to an scuffe: participants, a Haitian leader instigated a countered with a The leader made a suspicious move and Gillaspey the stock. The belligblow with the stock of his Browning gun, breaking and biting him. William tackling Gillaspey around the right leg erent fell, first class, bayoneted the man without seriously the T. Meyers, private, him to release Gillaspey. The clash with hurting him, but forcing natives followed." announced that the Haitians first threw The State Department the marines. 42 In any case, the marines stones and then rushed and dispersed the mob. opened fire at point-blank range press releases indiInitial marine reports and State Department the stock of his Browning gun, breaking and biting him. William tackling Gillaspey around the right leg erent fell, first class, bayoneted the man without seriously the T. Meyers, private, him to release Gillaspey. The clash with hurting him, but forcing natives followed." announced that the Haitians first threw The State Department the marines. 42 In any case, the marines stones and then rushed and dispersed the mob. opened fire at point-blank range press releases indiInitial marine reports and State Department --- Page 230 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 cated that 5 Haitians were killed and 20 informed the department that the final wounded, but Russell later and 23 wounded, and that "It is hospital list totaled 12 dead not brought in and other deaths possible that other wounded were taminated wounds. occurred in the hills from converification Reports are current that this is the cannot be secured." 48 Casualty lists case, but Haitian press in January, 1930, totaled 24 published in the In response to pointed dead and 51 wounded. Joseph P. Cotton, who questions from Under Secretary of State referred to the "Gring squad," > Russell explained the marine detachment as a in charge of the curious fact that both the officer detachment and his in Haiti only two days before the second-in-command had arrived selected for this duty as they would massacre by saying that they "were ing no bias or preconceived ideas operate on a military basis, havreported that 600 rounds of the Haitian situation. > 45 Russell and had been fired by one machine gun, but that most rifles, automatic rifles, over the natives' heads and that "Had firing had been deliberately it is reported that from three punitive effect been desired, hundred to four more, could easily have been killed." 46 A State hundred, perhaps release indicated that one marine was hurt Department press ter with a mob leader. The marines in hand-to-hand encounof any taint of were later officially vindicated awarded the brutality or indiscretion when the Navy Navy Cross to the Cayes detachment Department "commendable courage and forbearance." 47 commander for Military decorations exactly what the Hoover notwithstanding, the Cayes massacre was dent Hoover had stated administration in his wanted most to avoid. PresiDecember 3 that he did not first annual message to Congress on abroad by marines want the United States solution on foreign soil and that he was represented to the Haitian problem. 48 On anxious to find a of the masacre, Hoover sent December 7, after learning ing a $50,000 a special message to Congress requestHaiti. appropriation to send a commission of Meanwhile, he urgently sought to investigation to in Haiti by trying to get General Russell prevent further calamity five hundred marine reinforcements to make do without the Prince aboard the U.S.S. Wright. who were waiting off Port-auber 9: "The President feels that Stimson cabled Russell on Decemtion SO far as public it would immensely help the situaopinion in this country is concerned if the the masacre, Hoover sent December 7, after learning ing a $50,000 a special message to Congress requestHaiti. appropriation to send a commission of Meanwhile, he urgently sought to investigation to in Haiti by trying to get General Russell prevent further calamity five hundred marine reinforcements to make do without the Prince aboard the U.S.S. Wright. who were waiting off Port-auber 9: "The President feels that Stimson cabled Russell on Decemtion SO far as public it would immensely help the situaopinion in this country is concerned if the --- Page 231 --- STRIKES AND RIOTS would not the could be diverted. . This Marines now on Wright but would reflect credit on the efficacy only diminish criticism here taken." 49 In a separate message, Stimof the steps you have already additional troops would "very adversely son added that landing America. >> 50 affect our relations with all Latin Women and chilRussell managed without the reinforcements. into American colonies at outlying posts were brought dren from and Garde detachments in the interior Port-au-Prince and marines stations SO as not to arouse kept within the bounds of their regular either returned to further hostility. Striking government employees 4 walkout or were fired. work on the day following the December of demonstrators quashed Reinvigoration of martial law and arrests December 12 and Cap Haitien. By the uprisings in Port-au-Prince the strike at Port-au-Prince only 33 of 145 Haitians arrested during reaffirmation that still in An official State Department were jail." for reelection helped calm popular Borno would not be a candidate at Cap Haîtien credited the unrest; in fact, the American commander averted bloodshed," and department's declaration with having announced intention of sending a special presiPresident Hoover's the opposition. After order was dential commission further placated exonerated Russell of previous restored, the State Department severe in reacting to the allegations that he had been unnecessarily American Affairs Munro Chief of the Division of Latin uprisings. became acute in Haiti we were inclined noted: "When the situation in declaring martial to feel that General Russell had been precipitate makes it very clear, in law. More complete information, this however, action until it was absolutely opinion, that he did not take my outbreak which would have cost many necessary to prevent an of State Stimson sent lives.' >9 53 At the end of December Secretary him for having handled Russell a congratulatory message praising the uprisings well." which tended to disprove the longIn explaining the uprisings, to the Occupation was confined standing assertion that opposition General Russell to a small number of disgruntled elite politicians, all the trouble. Less than a argued that a few agitators had caused that it earlier Russell had reported to the State Department year worthy of note that the ignorant peasant no longer was "particularly with distrust, but now rather regards it looks upon the intervention 9 53 At the end of December Secretary him for having handled Russell a congratulatory message praising the uprisings well." which tended to disprove the longIn explaining the uprisings, to the Occupation was confined standing assertion that opposition General Russell to a small number of disgruntled elite politicians, all the trouble. Less than a argued that a few agitators had caused that it earlier Russell had reported to the State Department year worthy of note that the ignorant peasant no longer was "particularly with distrust, but now rather regards it looks upon the intervention --- Page 232 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 to Russell, were not as a friend." 55 The 1929 uprisings, according but rather by a few elite caused by widespread popular discontent Russell asserted: who cared nothing for the peasants. politicians unsupported, almost unThe students' strike disorders were utterly inarticuuninteresting to the passive, politically known and completely in the vicinity of Cayes were agitators able to late peasants. . Only mob containing some peasants; and among play upon the ignorance of a hatred of the town, and the the causes of that outbreak were liquor, expectation of loot,se in Port-au-Prince and Cap With respect to the mass uprisings the declaration of martial law Haitien, Russell noted that, following these two chief cities became calm, and curfew, "Almost immediately interest in the affair." 57 In subseshowing the lack of real popular allusions to international Red quent reports Russell made vague massacre on "dishonest, paid conspiracy and blamed the Cayes memorial several years agitators." 92 58 However, writing a personal had been "liberally incited later, he alleged that the Cayes peasants the extent of unrest was, of by rum. 97 59 Russell's later minimizing and dire communiqués he had course, belied by the many urgent sent to Washington during the uprisings. and the attendant implicaThe placing of all blame on agitators hostile to the Occupation, tion that most Haitians were not really information, was in although unsupported by concrete intelligence that popular eleckeeping with the familiar Russell-Borno argument and could not feasible because the masses were ignorant tions were the Occupation by unscrupulous be manipulated into voting against theory served selfish While the "subversive agitator" and politicians. authoritarian rule in the interest for paternal as a neat justification the Occupation of failings otherwise imof the masses and excused weakness of Russell's assessment of plicit in the uprisings, the basic demonstrated by the fact that he Haitian opposition was clearly when the roof fell in in 1929." was caught completely by surprise surveillance of virtually all The marines' elaborate intelligence advance indication of the Haitian political activity had provided no was similar to the slave revolt syndrome American surprise at the 1929 uprisings yielded superficial acquiescence that in colonial Saint Domingue, where but proved repression illusory. was comforting to the masters failings otherwise imof the masses and excused weakness of Russell's assessment of plicit in the uprisings, the basic demonstrated by the fact that he Haitian opposition was clearly when the roof fell in in 1929." was caught completely by surprise surveillance of virtually all The marines' elaborate intelligence advance indication of the Haitian political activity had provided no was similar to the slave revolt syndrome American surprise at the 1929 uprisings yielded superficial acquiescence that in colonial Saint Domingue, where but proved repression illusory. was comforting to the masters --- Page 233 --- STRIKES AND RIOTS included cumbersome intelligence network uprisings. The Garde's from Cabinet offipersonal files on hundreds of individuals, ongoing barbers, yet there was no material to substantiate 60 cers to small-town to overthrow the Occupation." allusions to any serious conspiracy international Communist conspiracy The only indications of any several mass demonstrations to foil American plans for Haiti were and New York. The against the Occupation staged in Washington Communist party memNew York Times reported that five hundred Hall Plaza following a bers battled New York City police at City issued in the party's call for demonstrations against the Occupation however, the Daily Worker. 01 These demonstrations, with newspaper, the in Haiti were over, and coincided took place after uprisings public attacks on United widespread American and worldwide In the United States States policy following the Cayes massacre. suddenly long-dormant opposition to the Occupation Congress, to American hypocrisy in championing revived as critics pointed down natives and noted that democracy and freedom while gunning similar to that of Great the American position in Haiti was strikingly of antiIndia and Japan in Korea. 62 As had been typical Britain in the occupation, the major concern imperialist agitation throughout decline of American political was not with Haiti but with the alleged idealism. One congressman stated that from are those who practice it those who finally suffer most despotism but I regard our disothers. I sympathize with the Haitian people, harmful upon of self-government by the Haitians as more regard of the right than to the Haitians, because we disregard the to our own institutions in the Declaration of Independence. When great principles announced the moral fiber of the people will begin to we cease to practice justice, decay." admitting that he was "not especially interAnother congressman, chiché ested in the Haitians," 99 echoed the familiar anti-imperialist at home. >9 64 "An abroad can not remain a democracy that imperialism the also reflected political The congressional debate over occupation with Northern and Southern divisions within the United States, with respect to the congressmen accusing each other of hypocrisy United States and denial of the ballot to Negroes in the Southern Haiti, respectively." 65 begin to we cease to practice justice, decay." admitting that he was "not especially interAnother congressman, chiché ested in the Haitians," 99 echoed the familiar anti-imperialist at home. >9 64 "An abroad can not remain a democracy that imperialism the also reflected political The congressional debate over occupation with Northern and Southern divisions within the United States, with respect to the congressmen accusing each other of hypocrisy United States and denial of the ballot to Negroes in the Southern Haiti, respectively." 65 --- Page 234 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED attention. Prior to the The 1929 uprisings attracted worldwide from Haiti since telegraph little had been heard uprisings very and the only two news services were censored by the Occupation, Press (AP) and the with reporters in Haiti, the Associated officers. agencies both by marine corps United Press (UP), were represented of the was also the at the time uprisings The AP representative marine reporter, who had commandant of the Garde; and a previous and the UP, was a former pubsimultaneously represented the AP 66 During the officer for the Marine Corps in Washington. to licity and riots both AP and UP sent special correspondents strikes American and other foreign newspapers, and Haiti, as did several Press reaction in the press coverage increased correspondingly. hostile to the Occupation, but it United States was not especially of the Occupation, such as was not favorable either; and criticisms were given a great deal those made by Senators Borah and King, was decidedly 67 The foreign reaction to the uprisings of publicity." remarked while hostile to the United States. As one congressman the role of praying pirates" criticizing the United States for playing world and does not blind it. The in Haiti, "Our smugness irritates the but seldom fools the world." 68 White House often fools the country, insofar as the occupation Foreign attitudes toward the occupation, unfavorable. British of attention, had always been was a subject had created a minor fuss over the 1920 members of Parliament killings of report that alluded to indiscriminate Marine Corps that the United States was quick to criticize Haitians, pointing out little notice to its own ruthless British activities in Ireland but paid American scholar Samuel repression of resistance in Haiti." In 1924 attacked in France, Guy Inman noted that the occupation was being has the military occupaBritain, and Spain, and that "In no country discussed than in Japan, tion of Santo Domingo and Haiti been more Monroe Doctrine of where the Government has formed now its own demands on which it justified its recent Twenty-one the Orient, by China, and its imperialism in Korea."" critical of American racism, The French press was especially of the 71 The 1929 feature occupation." which was seen as a dominant a dramatic increase in uprisings and the Cayes incident spurred The Paris press followed the unfavorable foreign newspaper reports. critical, with some uprisings closely and was characteristically "In no country discussed than in Japan, tion of Santo Domingo and Haiti been more Monroe Doctrine of where the Government has formed now its own demands on which it justified its recent Twenty-one the Orient, by China, and its imperialism in Korea."" critical of American racism, The French press was especially of the 71 The 1929 feature occupation." which was seen as a dominant a dramatic increase in uprisings and the Cayes incident spurred The Paris press followed the unfavorable foreign newspaper reports. critical, with some uprisings closely and was characteristically --- Page 235 --- STRIKES AND RIOTS The Mancalling for a League of Nations investigation." British papers the following dispatch from a chester Guardian published after the Cayes massacre: reporter in Haiti three days where almost the entire population is in revolt The situation in Haiti, as no surprise to those in close against American control . . comes Resentment against the touch with the affairs of the negro republic. and needed only some American occupation has long been smouldering minor dispute to cause it to burst into flame." later referred to the occupation as "America's least The Guardian >> 74 successful experiment in imperialism. concerned about the possiThe State Department was especially in Latin-American counble adverse affect of the Haitian uprisings diplomatic and issued a circular instructing all Latin-American tries local reactions. The resulting reports described posts to report on reports, such as in Lima newsfrequent instances of hostile press statements by United States papers, all of which quoted critical with Latin-American governSenator William Borah, but relations newspaper La affected." The Argentine ments were not directly the occupation through early Prensa continued to campaign against managed to keep Haiti out 1930. During the mid-1920s the marines the was turning spotlight, but now occupation of the international to United States efforts to develop into a defnite embarrassment America. The concern about unfavorfriendly relations with Latin that Hoover and Stimson had able publicity at home and abroad expressed during the uprisings was justified. untenable. The 1929 strikes and riots made the occupation would have necesAmerican rule and denial of elections Continued international embarrasssitated military repression and additional States could not gracefully because the United ment. It was largely had continued to sit on Haiti after extricate itself that the marines American hopes for gradual World War I. With the 1929 uprisings, were extrication from the Haitian entanglement and unobtrusive the sensational Cayes massacre, shattered. The uprisings, especially cared to face. President as Hoover and Stimson were as disastrous commission to Haiti in February, Hoover, in dispatching a special which is to be investigated is 1930, stated: "The primary question from Haiti. The second question when and how we are to withdraw to sit on Haiti after extricate itself that the marines American hopes for gradual World War I. With the 1929 uprisings, were extrication from the Haitian entanglement and unobtrusive the sensational Cayes massacre, shattered. The uprisings, especially cared to face. President as Hoover and Stimson were as disastrous commission to Haiti in February, Hoover, in dispatching a special which is to be investigated is 1930, stated: "The primary question from Haiti. The second question when and how we are to withdraw --- Page 236 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HATTI, 1915-1934 is what we shall do in the meantime. . . As Ihave stated before, I have no desire for representation of the American Government abroad through our military forces. > 76 Subsequent American policy was to avoid further popular demonstrations at all costs and to get out of Haiti as quickly as could be done in an orderly fashion. --- Page 237 --- Withdrawal The 1929 uprisings resulted in the authoritarian policies and abandonment of repressive, of rapid transferal of political complementary uplift programs in favor United States objective control back to the Haitians. The even though this was to get out of Haiti as quickly as meant an possible forces in popular elections overwhelming and victory for anti-American pre-1915 political and social a seemingly inevitable reversion to progress were forsaken as officials conditions. of All allusions to uplift and dicted that disaster would follow the occupation frankly prewithdrawal. The in the aftermath of American major barrier to early not concern over having adequate American withdrawal was and uplift programs to time to transfer treaty services of satisfying competent Haitians but rather the commitments to American problem on continued American financial bondholders, who insisted Haitianizing the government control. After a crash program of for transfer of the Banque departments and laborious negotiations financial control, the last Nationale and continuation of American 1934, two years in advance marines of the were finally withdrawn in midPrior to the 1929 strikes and 1936 date stipulated in the treaty. generally satisfied with riots the State Department had been missioner Russell. progress in Haiti as reported No basic change in Haitian by High Comtemplated; the occupation was policy had been conwhich time the expected to continue until 1936, at President Hoover government had would be turned over to the Haitians.' planned to send a commission of investigation financial control, the last Nationale and continuation of American 1934, two years in advance marines of the were finally withdrawn in midPrior to the 1929 strikes and 1936 date stipulated in the treaty. generally satisfied with riots the State Department had been missioner Russell. progress in Haiti as reported No basic change in Haitian by High Comtemplated; the occupation was policy had been conwhich time the expected to continue until 1936, at President Hoover government had would be turned over to the Haitians.' planned to send a commission of investigation --- Page 238 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 to Haiti before the uprisings, but this by American business firms rather was in response to complaints pendence. 2 The than to agitation for Haitian indeactually got around uprisings came as a big surprise, and when to sending a commission Hoover 1930, the purpose was to dump the to Haiti in February, modate Haitian nationalists in order Russell-Borno regime and accomembarrassment to the United to avoid further bloodshed and sisted of Chairman W. States. The Forbes Commission conPhilippines and leading Cameron Forbes, a former governor of the P. expert on American colonial Fletcher, a former Rough Rider, matters; Henry on his 1928 goodwill tour of Latin diplomat, and adviser to Hoover editor James Kerney of New America; Democratic newspaper Catholic; and William Jersey; Elie Vezina, a Allen White, liberal French-speaking whose presence, according to Republican journalist the public that the White, was calculated to guarantee to affair." Fletcher, investigation would not be a Kerney, and White were whitewashing withdrawal of the marines at the earliest predisposed toward Forbes, who had been invited possible moment, while secretary of state referred to by Stimson to undertake what the as "a very job," was by temperament and disagreeable and thankless promiser. training a conciliator and comPopular hostility to the occupation and ment was still very much in evidence to the Borno client-governreached Haiti in when the Forbes Commission his February, 1930. Rumors own successor had caused a crowd of that Borno would choose in Port-au-Prince on the eve of the several thousand to gather by marines and the Garde, which commission's arrival, and arrests hitting people with billies, created also dispersed the crowd by of arrival 6,000 Haitian a tense atmosphere. On the day carrying placards demonstrators greeted the commission colleagues reported denouncing the occupation; and Forbes and his demonstrations that, although they felt that this were rigged by the and other that public sentiment in Haiti opposition, it was "fair to assume than to the government. >2 5 No was more responsive to the opposition the occupation. Despite initial one ever demonstrated in favor of mission managed to ingratiate itself Haitian with apprehensiveness, the comthanks to William Allen White's the Haitian public largely vened to procure permission for personal charm. Forbes had intera patriotic parade of Haitian women colleagues reported denouncing the occupation; and Forbes and his demonstrations that, although they felt that this were rigged by the and other that public sentiment in Haiti opposition, it was "fair to assume than to the government. >2 5 No was more responsive to the opposition the occupation. Despite initial one ever demonstrated in favor of mission managed to ingratiate itself Haitian with apprehensiveness, the comthanks to William Allen White's the Haitian public largely vened to procure permission for personal charm. Forbes had intera patriotic parade of Haitian women --- Page 239 --- WITHDRAWAL which had been forbidden by the witnessed the parade, blew a kiss to Occupation, and White, who which caused the demonstrators a withered old black woman, fidence in the commission's to cheer and helped create consubsequently referred to White good in intentions. The opposition press name corresponds to and fits the glowing terms: "How well the character, heart . . . full of wise counsels and White of soul and of in his person.' > 6 generous fervor, gay, lovable Members of the Forbes Commission made vate the Haitian elite by a special effort to cultito elite testimony mingling socially and by listening mainly General during the formal phases of the Russell, on the other hand, antagonized the investigation. inviting members of the elite to a social opposition by of the commission. Russell went reception given in honor commission that he and Mrs. Russell to great lengths to convince the themselves in being socially had always personally extended tions to the mixed gracious toward the Haitians, but invitareception for the of embarrassing refusals from commission resulted in a series ently being invited to the Russell Haitians, some of whom were appartook the opportunity to residence for the first time and of refusal in the local express their hostility by publishing letters commission press. The reception was was impressed by Russell's integrated, and the erance, but, as Forbes observed, "The professions of racial toltreatment of the colored large social question of the was not approached." people by officers in the Marine brigade In presenting the Occupation's side of the Russell called together all the story to the commission pressed upon them the treaty officials and, as he put it, "imnecessity of refuting in charges set forth by the Opposition,' >> but the every particular, the publicly compromised when Dr. Freeman of Occupation's case was insisted on testifying in private the Service Technique "looked very much as if he had sessions. Russell remarked that it Freeman's testimony was not something to conceal." In fact, Freeman released the compromising to the Occupation, and explaining that "I did commission not know from its pledge of secrecy after certain questions of a delicate whether or not you might ask me macy should require to be nature which the dictates of diplokept confidential . no such questions ,' >> but the every particular, the publicly compromised when Dr. Freeman of Occupation's case was insisted on testifying in private the Service Technique "looked very much as if he had sessions. Russell remarked that it Freeman's testimony was not something to conceal." In fact, Freeman released the compromising to the Occupation, and explaining that "I did commission not know from its pledge of secrecy after certain questions of a delicate whether or not you might ask me macy should require to be nature which the dictates of diplokept confidential . no such questions --- Page 240 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 the unfavor- >9 10 Freeman's candor came too late to counteract arose, his initial reticence, and the testimony of able impression made by either the commission or other officials did not particularly impress received a detailed the Haitian public. When the commission General Russell, it refused to defense of the occupation prepared by disorders in what had make the document public for fear of creating delicate situation. become an extremely mission of the Forbes Commission The immediate and pressing future policies as was not SO much to investigate and recommend between the Russell-Borno it was to solve the political impasse the threat of further violence. regime and the opposition and to avert Memorandum, Steps taken In a special report entitled "Confidential Forbes noted that "the acute situation in Haiti," to solve political that the Haitians situation was difficult at best and really required alternative seemed be permitted to elect their president . . any chance of a president's to be out of the question, as there was no in anything but being elected by the Council of State resulting revolution." ? 11 Russell described the situation as In a memorandum to Forbes, intends to force the issue of tense and observed that "the opposition of lives, and it is therefore national elections, even at the sacrifice to endeavor to effect a compromise." of utmost importance Borno and transfer political The problem was how to remove the Borno to the most moderate faction within opposition. power unfavorable impression on the commission, and Forbes made a very to be "living in a world of illusion or commented that he seemed which had been endelusion in regard to the depth of the feeling "? 18 William Allen gendered against him by the Haitian populace. and most described Borno as follows: "He is thin, tall, toothy White apart from reality. : . He has a disagreeable, and lives entirely myself-and Kerney little sneering laugh . . . I kept pinching not listening to a stage melosaid he did also-to realize that I was man should be SO drama. It just did not seem possible than any patent a stage villain." 14 that the Americans would ultiBorno had apparently expected and was now becoming recalcimately retain him as client-president thrown out of office. trant at the prospect of being follows: "He is thin, tall, toothy White apart from reality. : . He has a disagreeable, and lives entirely myself-and Kerney little sneering laugh . . . I kept pinching not listening to a stage melosaid he did also-to realize that I was man should be SO drama. It just did not seem possible than any patent a stage villain." 14 that the Americans would ultiBorno had apparently expected and was now becoming recalcimately retain him as client-president thrown out of office. trant at the prospect of being --- Page 241 --- WITHDRAWAL Despite repeated messages from the State that Borno would not be Department since 1928 assurances from Russell and permitted a third term and frequent Borno had begun to Borno that he would not run again, mission hedge in the fall of 1929,15 The Forbes reaffirmed the department's decision Comthat "the United States would not and informed Borno of a government kept in longer tolerate the perpetuation people by means of the power against the desires of the Haitian ceeded guns of the Marines.' 2 16 The to negotiate with the political commission procontinued to deal with Borno in opposition while Russell selecting a temporary neutral an effort to work out a plan for several months until president who would hold office for factory compromise legislative elections could be held. A satisinvolving the selection of porary president was worked out with the Eugene Roy as temof the Garde, Marine Colonel help of the commandant thought of by the opposition and Frank E. Evans, who was highly to Garde intelligence by Haitians in general. reports, Borno had earlier According Evans was the sole cause of his not stated privately that while Russell remained being selected for a third term, his office, Borno loyal." Although it involved finally agreed to the surrendering Russell played a large part in drawing compromise plan, and he and wrote the State up the details. Forbes later Department that the have accepted the compromise opposition groups would never it emanated from "the plan had they known how much of Borno." > 18 The Forbes initiative of General Russell and President would elect Roy, who plan would provided that Borno's Council of State insisted then call for the upon by the opposition. The legislative elections would then choose a new president other popularly elected legislature Borno, however, had not than Roy. proceeded to intrigue yet reconciled himself to defeat, and against the Forbes agreement and thereby plan by going back on his strations, such as a clash aggravating popular unrest. Popular demonin Jacmel, all featured demands between a hundred youths and the Garde by the Forbes plan. While the for legislative elections as provided interior of the country, Borno Forbes Commission was touring the promise plan by renounced his agreement to the comhis Council of State sending a telegram to local prefects that would elect the new president. Forbes declaring referred not than Roy. proceeded to intrigue yet reconciled himself to defeat, and against the Forbes agreement and thereby plan by going back on his strations, such as a clash aggravating popular unrest. Popular demonin Jacmel, all featured demands between a hundred youths and the Garde by the Forbes plan. While the for legislative elections as provided interior of the country, Borno Forbes Commission was touring the promise plan by renounced his agreement to the comhis Council of State sending a telegram to local prefects that would elect the new president. Forbes declaring referred --- Page 242 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 of unrest and misunderstanding" to this telegram as "provocative Borno that the marines would no and the commission informed trouble." Borno, longer protect him if he persisted in fomenting continued to make desperately to what little power he had, clinging that the elections would not be held public statements implying of State would select someone other until 1932 and that his Council various failed president, but his intrigues than Roy as provisional force the United States to retrench in to create enough unrest to rule. The State Dethe old Russell-Borno system of authoritarian would not "afford warned Borno that the United States of action partment support or protection in a course him or his adherents any Russell that the department contrary to the plan" and informed to have Eugene Roy would "take such steps as may prove necessary therefore, President e and is prepared, installed as temporary of State which is in violation to disregard any action of the Council after of the plan. 99 20 A little more than a month of the provisions Commission the Council of State elected the departure of the Forbes and a few weeks later Borno Roy, according to the compromise plan, president was inauguwas publicly jeered as the new provisional where he was prorated. Borno retired to his home in Pétionville, afterward small detachment of the Garde, and shortly tected by a vacation in Europe. left the country for an extended the achievements and failThe Forbes Commission, in assessing racism, the advance ures of the Occupation, criticized American could have been used for payment of the debt when excess revenues the failure to the dismal performance in education, development, and the Garde as rapidly train Haitians to take over the government of independent selfhave been done, and the attitude as might officials of the Occupation. In its final report to sufficiency taken by noted: President Hoover, the commission and attitude of the treaty officials gave our commission the The acts had been based upon the assumption that the Occuimpression that they In other words, their plans and pation would continue indefinitely. account that their work would be projects did not seem to take into to find that completed by 1936, and the commission was disappointed training of Haitians the preparation for the political and administrative of government had been inadequate.s in the responsibilities attitude as might officials of the Occupation. In its final report to sufficiency taken by noted: President Hoover, the commission and attitude of the treaty officials gave our commission the The acts had been based upon the assumption that the Occuimpression that they In other words, their plans and pation would continue indefinitely. account that their work would be projects did not seem to take into to find that completed by 1936, and the commission was disappointed training of Haitians the preparation for the political and administrative of government had been inadequate.s in the responsibilities --- Page 243 --- WITHDRAWAL Forbes said that the Russell-Borno In private talks with Hoover, "without the propaganda . team had pushed through reforms the and in a letter which is necessary to 'sell the idea to people," had been friend Forbes noted that the most serious failing to a from "the fact that the Americans sent racial prejudice resulting selected from the point of view down were not always judiciously of locality of origin." >> 22 report was mainly In spite of all these criticisms, the commission's had made Forbes later remarked that the commission the hostile laudatory. criticisms" SO as to avoid giving "careful and guarded and Latin America an opportunity to press in the United States Forbes felt that Russell and Borno attack Russell and the marines. report, which recomdeal" out of the commission's got a "dirty and the commission went out of its mended that Russell be recalled, his promotion by way of way to praise Russell and recommended was 23 Indeed, Russell's demise as high commissioner compensation." of American policy rather than by any percaused by the reversal served faithfully as the chosen instrusonal shortcomings. He had from 1922 on and was now being ment of State Department policy transition to the new policy of made a scapegoat to facilitate when department disengagement. Those few instances gracious reproachments over Russell's officials indulged in hand-wringing of press censorship and the arbitrary methods, as with his handling to the reform, can be ascribed more department's 1928 constitutional Russell's part. The department had own foibles than to failings on and could not reaset up the occupation as a military undertaking Moreover, Russell's sonably blame the marines for running it as such. in Haiti eight years' service as the State Department's representative In 1930 Assistant had cost him stature within the Marine Corps. of State Francis White wrote to Stimson recommending and Marine Secretary despite his not being liked in the Navy that Russell, close associations with the State Department, Corps because of past commandant of the Marine Corps be promoted to major general well with the State Department and precisely because he worked among them Major understood its point of view. Other candidates, in the European General Smedley Butler, all had combat experience out that known as hard-line marines. White pointed war and were orientation, would not fit in with the they, because of their military Marine Corps. of State Francis White wrote to Stimson recommending and Marine Secretary despite his not being liked in the Navy that Russell, close associations with the State Department, Corps because of past commandant of the Marine Corps be promoted to major general well with the State Department and precisely because he worked among them Major understood its point of view. Other candidates, in the European General Smedley Butler, all had combat experience out that known as hard-line marines. White pointed war and were orientation, would not fit in with the they, because of their military --- Page 244 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 Russell was appointed major department's new Caribbean policy." general commandant in 1934. e released on the return The White House, in a palliative statement that "The commission was of the Forbes Commission, announced results accomplished under particularly impressed with the splendid who, along and efficient direction of General Russell," the sincere "full credit" for substantial progress in with Borno, would be given order. 25 The commission public health, public works, and public doubt that Haiti, under the reported that "There is no room for made material has great control of the American Occupation, and cited as examples the conprogress in the past fifteen years" modern hospitals, the registrastruction of 153 rural clinics and 11 increase in linear feet of tion of 2,800 automobiles, a threefold and telephones. bridges, 800 miles of roads, and new lighthouses had been mainly The commission also noted that this progress the of only eight years, since a constructive achieved over span until after the 1922 reorganization. In policy was not carried out observed that the conclusion, however, Forbes and his colleagues fulfilled original expositive achievements, though great, had not understand the social pectations: "The failure of the Occupation to there to plant democracy problems of Haiti, its brusque attempt to set up a middle classby drill and harrow, its determination to Americans--all these however wise and necessary it may seem works in this land explain why, in part, the high hopes of our good have not been realized." 26 that Russell be replaced by a The commission recommended the United States interpose no objections nonmilitary minister, that and internal taxes, and, reiterating to reductions in customs duties that "in retaining officers now the advice of the 1922 Senate Inquiry, Americans for employment in the Haitian service, or selecting new those free from strong therein, the utmost care be taken that only should be preferred. s? 27 Preparations for American racial antipathies of Russell in 1930 was the Hoover administra0 Another factor in the jettisoning with the Marine Corps. Major General Comtion's less than enthusiastic relationship General Little in Haiti as Franklin D. Roosevelt mandant Ben H. Fuller wrote to 1933, that "The attitude of the Administrawas taking over the presidency in March, favorable than it was a month ago and the future tion towards us is distinctly more when the Engineer [Hoover] was hamstringing us. doesn't look sO dark as it did Louis McCarty Little Papers, MARCORPS MUS. Fuller to Little, Mar. 14, 1933; administra0 Another factor in the jettisoning with the Marine Corps. Major General Comtion's less than enthusiastic relationship General Little in Haiti as Franklin D. Roosevelt mandant Ben H. Fuller wrote to 1933, that "The attitude of the Administrawas taking over the presidency in March, favorable than it was a month ago and the future tion towards us is distinctly more when the Engineer [Hoover] was hamstringing us. doesn't look sO dark as it did Louis McCarty Little Papers, MARCORPS MUS. Fuller to Little, Mar. 14, 1933; --- Page 245 --- WITHDRAWAL Haitianization of withdrawal were to be accelerated by more rapid the Garde and the other treaty services. distressed by the recent uprisings, Russell, who had been greatly official, caused him to feel "as which, according to one occupation under his eyes, 99 28 was incensed though his life's work was crumbling Commission and bitterly the criticisms made by the Forbes over letter of defense and vindication which he attacked it in a long Russell argued that the submitted to Secretary of State Stimson. not long enough to commission had been in Haiti only fifteen days, that the comof the complicated situation, gain an understanding sentiment favored the opposition was mission's statement that public had held back its forces SO as not unfair because the Occupation had given 90 percent of its to create disorder, that the commission while the treaty offithe "outs" make false charges time to hearing to present their side," and cials had been given "scant opportunity him for devotion to the that the commission was wrong in them," praising since he had always acted interests of Haiti "as he conceived Russell took personal under strict orders from the State Department. plan put into effect credit for having formulated the compromise the various Occuo and stated that he had urged by the commission Haitians and that promotions had pation departments to promote he observed: "The as In this connection been as rapid possible. of the Garde is due in a large reason for the present efficiency the fact that the promotion of Haitian measure, in my opinion, to officer must thoroughly learn his officers has not been rapid. An to a higher grade." before being promoted duties in a lower grade reference to American racism, RusIn response to the commission's has been brought to sell replied that "No case of racial prejudice difficult to underattention for many years and it is, therefore, my remarks or on what it based them." stand the Commission's Forbes with its arrangements for As for the wisdom of the plan, "little better fitted free elections, Russell felt that the Haitians were and that "The people than they were in 1915" for self-government and more bold and insulting and in my >9 have recently grown more force would be a grave error. mind any reduction in the military Commission credited Frank E. Evans, COL, USMC, e James Kerney of the Forbes with having originally proposed the compromise plan. commandant of the Carde, 12, 1931. SD 838.00/2969, Kerney to Stimson, May As for the wisdom of the plan, "little better fitted free elections, Russell felt that the Haitians were and that "The people than they were in 1915" for self-government and more bold and insulting and in my >9 have recently grown more force would be a grave error. mind any reduction in the military Commission credited Frank E. Evans, COL, USMC, e James Kerney of the Forbes with having originally proposed the compromise plan. commandant of the Carde, 12, 1931. SD 838.00/2969, Kerney to Stimson, May --- Page 246 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 Russell opposed the gradual withdrawal of that the United States should forces and recommended gram, SO often heard "get in-or get out." 80 This last epiof the occupation, among military officers during the early days government if the presumably alluded to the need for total While the occupation was ever to be really successful. military Forbes Commission reported accomplishments of the favorably on the material American rule, its Occupation and on the beneficent effects of drawal prognosis for Haiti's future after was highly pessimistic. In its final American withstated that it was report the commission after free elections "under no delusions" as to what would and the of the happen told Hoover that the departure marines, and Forbes rather legislative election offered than a remedy for the Haitian plan a palliative mentally unsound. " 81 Forbes wrote situation, which was "fundaIndia, with whom he Lord Irwin, British viceroy of American corresponded comparing the problems in Haiti with British similarities of Haitians were unfit for problems in India, that the a benevolent democracy and that "Their best is for despot to arise who, like Porfirio Diaz hope guide them with wisdom, in Mexico, will bled times ahead of them." firmness, 82 and honesty through the troucal of the attitude of American Forbes's reference to Diaz e was typiHaiti and was quite officials who had been involved with Borno client-government. compatible with American sponsorship of the Supporters of the justified it as a necessary form of benevolent Occupation had long question was, of course, benevolent for despotism. The crucial Borno in Haiti were benevolent whom? Diaz in Mexico and therefore supported by the United to American interests and were criteria for a "good" benevolent States, In Haiti, as elsewhere, the coupled with pro-United States despotism were prolonged stability memorial "A Marine Looks politics. In his unpublished personal Russell Back on Haiti" (about 1934), suggested, in what can be General allusion to his own interpreted as a thinly veiled for a country in which performance the in Haiti: "A military dictatorship foundations of democracy do not Porfirio Diaz was a ruthless dictator who yet foreign investors and the Porfrian opened up Mexico to exploitation the mass of the population and thus oligarchy without meaningful compensations for by 1911-24. precipitated the bloody Mexican Revolution of memorial "A Marine Looks politics. In his unpublished personal Russell Back on Haiti" (about 1934), suggested, in what can be General allusion to his own interpreted as a thinly veiled for a country in which performance the in Haiti: "A military dictatorship foundations of democracy do not Porfirio Diaz was a ruthless dictator who yet foreign investors and the Porfrian opened up Mexico to exploitation the mass of the population and thus oligarchy without meaningful compensations for by 1911-24. precipitated the bloody Mexican Revolution of --- Page 247 --- WITHDRAWAL first is that it be exist is not necessarily a bad thing. Its requirement long time and enough to give stable rule for a comparatively strong that it have some sense of obligation to the people." secondly close affinity between Russell, Borno, On this basis there was a Lord Cromer, British high Forbes, and Russell's earlier counterpart, that after complete commissioner in Egypt. Russell prophesied of withdrawal Haiti would "return to a system military American "such dictatorships dictatorships," > but that, thanks to the occupation, in the past. 9 88 and reactionary as should not be as cynical, cruel, with both the antidemocratic Russell's prognosis was in keeping and with the persisting policies and practices of the Occupation in the Caribbean. obsession concerning order and stability American conciliation which Despite the new emphasis on good-neighbor the question of followed in the aftermath of the 1929 uprisings, American officials despotism in Haiti was by no means irrelevant. future would be the factor in Haiti's realized that an important of the Garde, and gave due considerapotential political domination In 1930 a marine officer tion to the choice of a Haitian commander. Démosthène P. Calixte, as recommended the eventual selection, command he has follows: "I believe that if he were left in supreme assaults on the sufficient strength of character to withstand and political that he will be the Garde. I believe he is absolutely ruthless of the if left as Commandant behind the administration power e Garde."* intentions of the United States government, Whatever the of dictators Rafael Trujillo Calixte did not follow in the footsteps both Republic) and Anastasio Somoza (Nicaragua), (Dominican of marine-nurtured of whom had risen to power as commanders dictatorships of thirtyconstabularies. Trujillo and Somoza enjoyed scholar has asserted and one one and twenty years, respectively, until and after death, testifies that "The endurance of their regimes, armed forces which first to their hold on modern and centralized 92 85 In Haiti, during United States intervention." came into being Affairs and then chief of the Division of Latin American e Dana G. Munro, the period of withdrawal, says that the State Department with minister to Haiti during dictatorship in Haiti. My interview had no intention of setting up a military Munro, Princeton, N.J., Feb. 28, 1968. and one one and twenty years, respectively, until and after death, testifies that "The endurance of their regimes, armed forces which first to their hold on modern and centralized 92 85 In Haiti, during United States intervention." came into being Affairs and then chief of the Division of Latin American e Dana G. Munro, the period of withdrawal, says that the State Department with minister to Haiti during dictatorship in Haiti. My interview had no intention of setting up a military Munro, Princeton, N.J., Feb. 28, 1968. --- Page 248 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED unsuccessful coup d'état in 1938 and was Calixte lost out in an forced into exile. e concurred in the gloomy predictions of Other American officials Commandant Evans created some the Forbes Commission. Garde publicly prophesying in consternation in the State Department by States assuming a 1931 that "Future events may see the United following our withresumption of its present activities in Haiti, de la Rue attributed drawal in 1936." 36 Financial Adviser Sidney stimulus of of the 1920s to the artificial the economic prosperity in 1929, rather than to Brazilian coffee valorization, which collapsed and noted made under the occupation any fundamental progress future prosperity unless crop that there was little reason to expect Haitian will could be achieved: ". . . the problem diversification It is and for the present not in any way last beyond our time. ugly situation. It is one pregwe face an almost impossible solved . Describing his work as nant with trouble and financially a mess." as being "merely financial adviser in the wake of the 1929 uprisings the morbid prede la Rue echoed defensive" and not constructive, nous le deluge. s2 87 diction attributed to Louis XV: "Apres about the future Secretary of State Stimson also was pessimistic President-elect Franklin D. of Haiti and during a 1933 visit with think the United States had Roosevelt stated that he did not recorded his conversation achieved lasting stability in Haiti. Stimson whether the job in Haiti was with Roosevelt: "He [Roosevelt] told asked him I did not think it would stay finished and would stay put. I whether he knew of any selfpermanently put and asked him and he could not community which had stayed put, governing negro on Haiti by reassur- >> 88 Stimson concluded his comments suggest any. States was rapidly pulling the marines ing Roosevelt that the United progress in finishing our out of Haiti and was "making very good job for the present. > 89 after the departure of the Public disorders in Haiti continued and the selection of provisional Forbes Commission in March, 1930, Commissioner Russell referred President Roy in April. In what High the Americans," 9> to "create a reign of terror among to as an attempt the homes of Marine Colonels Cutts and local arsonists burned down who by his friend and political ally Trujillo, *In exile Calixte was supported in the Dominican army. eventually gave him a commission our out of Haiti and was "making very good job for the present. > 89 after the departure of the Public disorders in Haiti continued and the selection of provisional Forbes Commission in March, 1930, Commissioner Russell referred President Roy in April. In what High the Americans," 9> to "create a reign of terror among to as an attempt the homes of Marine Colonels Cutts and local arsonists burned down who by his friend and political ally Trujillo, *In exile Calixte was supported in the Dominican army. eventually gave him a commission --- Page 249 --- WITHDRAWAL Horton as well as a number of other movie house. 40 Rumors of homes, several stores, and a Jacmel, and the Garde incendiary activity caused disturbances in of a large hostile mob was forced to resort to rifle fire over the heads at Abricots. In an extensive program of mid-1930 the Garde undertook of disorders culminated training in antiriot techniques. The series in a general strike of sorters, logwood workers, longshoremen, coffee and sanitary department agricultural laborers, and public works 1930. The employees at Cap Haitien in December, longshoremen, government proposed a 50 percent increase in which was accepted by wages for after they were informed that the Garde steamship company agents safety of strikebreakers. could not guarantee the Occupation officials variously to Port-au-Prince attributed the strike munist propaganda." politicians, labor agitators, and ComPresident Roy's provisional May to November, 1930, government, which held office from elections for October. The scheduled the long-awaited legislative officials to remain State Department ordered American to their barracks strictly neutral, and the marines were confned during the balloting. American Grummon, who referred to the Chargé Stuart est election that has ever been held election as "unquestionably the fairthat the election had "resulted in the history of Haiti," reported American, in the complete defeat of all pro-Borno and moderate prothat "The real hero of the elections candidates." Grummon noted violent anti-American is Joseph Jolibois fils, whose ican imperialism, sentiments and tirades against so-called Amerduring his three-year America, are well known to the Department. pilgrimage >2 42 throughout Latin Jolibois was, according to an American called the "Borno-Made man" because he intelligence report, often thanks to the numerous had risen from obscurity writing prison terms he served under Borno for ture featured anti-occupation newspaper articles. 48 His a photograph of himself campaign literarocks; the in a prison uniform picture was obviously taken after his breaking seen breaking rocks with a broom handle release since he is shoes. Jolibois, age and wearing shiny dress presidency, but his thirty-nine, was too young to qualify for the of another resounding election victory ensured the selection long-time Haitian nationalist, Sténio president when the legislature voted in Vincent, as the new November, 1930. orno for ture featured anti-occupation newspaper articles. 48 His a photograph of himself campaign literarocks; the in a prison uniform picture was obviously taken after his breaking seen breaking rocks with a broom handle release since he is shoes. Jolibois, age and wearing shiny dress presidency, but his thirty-nine, was too young to qualify for the of another resounding election victory ensured the selection long-time Haitian nationalist, Sténio president when the legislature voted in Vincent, as the new November, 1930. --- Page 250 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 election of Vincent, the United States In conjunction with the civilian minister to Haiti, replacing appointed Dr. Dana G. Munro as of Russell, following the High Commissioner Russell. The removal marked the end of Amerearlier departure of Borno and Freeman, to assume the funcican military dictation. Munro was instructed but he was to exercised by the high commissioner, tions hitherto of action of the new Vincent avoid interfering with the freedom view of the new United States government as much as possible in out in Munro's policy toward Haiti. This new policy was spelled withdraw from any instructions: "It is this Government's desire to the earliest moment in the internal affairs of Haiti at that participation be effected with a reasonable hope when such withdrawal can which compelled its interthere will be no return to the conditions vention in 1915."* back Colonel Louis McCarty In appointing Munro and in bringing commander, the the Haitians, as brigade Little, who was liked by friendlier relations with the Haitians United States hoped to develop however, remained a factor. through tact and diplomacy. Racism, on liberty in Port-auIn 1931 Little noted that marines misbehaving 99 handled by the Prince were never, "except in grave emergency," would provoke a situation Garde because "Blacks arresting Whites abstained 45 Minister Munro pointedly which might cause a riot." American Club and succeeded from joining the racially segregated Washington's relations to the extent that a George bein warming by cordial social mixing Birthday celebration was accompanied tween Haitians and Americans. however, not enough to ensure The efforts at conciliation were, withdrawal. The functioning of the a smooth and graceful American in the aftermath of the 1929 treaty services broke down rapidly felt For one thing, officials of the American occupation to their uprisings. criticized, and Munro referred that they had been unjustly obstacle to efficiency. 46 Half the "very low morale" as a principal resigned within a year after Americans in the Service Technique civilian and military perthe 1929 uprisings and other American as possible. A the desire to get out as quickly sonnel expressed reported that American employees New York Times correspondent resented the fact that General Russell of the Occupation especially directed from Washington had been made "the goat" for policies of the American occupation to their uprisings. criticized, and Munro referred that they had been unjustly obstacle to efficiency. 46 Half the "very low morale" as a principal resigned within a year after Americans in the Service Technique civilian and military perthe 1929 uprisings and other American as possible. A the desire to get out as quickly sonnel expressed reported that American employees New York Times correspondent resented the fact that General Russell of the Occupation especially directed from Washington had been made "the goat" for policies --- Page 251 --- WITHDRAWAL Russell's that the Forbes Commission had never made public and that the State Dedefense, which justified his actions by stating would have embarrassed partment had ordered them, because this deficits the administration in Washington." Large government treaty were another factor in curtailing caused by the Depression de la Rue reported in 1931 that the services; Financial Adviser of recent years" had largely been "ambitious developmental program "insufficient to strengthen the police given up and that funds were badly needed improveand constabulary, or to construct many over Haitian finances ments." 92 48 De la Rue who retained firm control of contraction despite the change in governments, pursued a policy Taxes faced with reduced revenues caused by the Depression. when employees were discharged were increased while many government 49 on the foreign debt to and others had their wages cut. Payments to be made on schedule. American bondholders continued, of course, Latin-American countries In 1935 Haiti was the only one of fifteen which had not defaulted. 50 offered dollar bonds holding publicly difficulties were compounded by political Low morale and fiscal found that the Vincent governproblems as Minister Munro soon plans for was not willing to conform to State Department ment American terms. In November, 1931, a State gradual withdrawal on the time Munro had taken over in Department officer noted that at that Haitianization earlier, the department had hoped Haiti a year and process and of the occupation would be an "orderly of gradual the Treaty Services that the minimum American control in any 5> 51 Vincent, however, kept up a would continue for several years. Haitianization in a series of conconstant harassment for immediate the Public Works Servtroversies involving the Service Technique, 1931, that the and the Garde. Munro reported in January, ice, being subjected to severe pressure by Vincent government was accused it of "acquiescing in a policy of Haitian nationalists who to feel that real cooperadelay" and stated that he was "beginning after all is the only tion is almost out of the question. . . . Force thing these people have any respect for."s the State Department In response to pressure from the Haitians of the Public Works Departacquiesced in complete Haitianization found himself fighting what amounted ment in February, and Munro harassment from action against constant political to a rearguard to severe pressure by Vincent government was accused it of "acquiescing in a policy of Haitian nationalists who to feel that real cooperadelay" and stated that he was "beginning after all is the only tion is almost out of the question. . . . Force thing these people have any respect for."s the State Department In response to pressure from the Haitians of the Public Works Departacquiesced in complete Haitianization found himself fighting what amounted ment in February, and Munro harassment from action against constant political to a rearguard --- Page 252 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 refused to agree to Haitian nationalists. The Vincent government and Munro refor gradual Haitianization, the department's plan that we cannot permit this ported in June: "It is obvious, however, from executing our own internal political situation to prevent us desires is of withdrawal. I assume that what the Department 58 policy Haitianization either by agreement or by our own action." back down in a after this Stimson instructed Munro to Shortly of a Haitian Garde officer, noting controversy over the promotion of Haiti," which that the alternative was "virtual military occupancy the United States." In would not be tolerated by public opinion in White had written March, Assistant Secretary of State Francis in "a desire, news from Haiti had resulted Munro that discouraging to withdraw from Haiti bag on the part of the President [Hoover), >9 55 and baggage immediately if possible. withdrawal plan abandoned the gradual The State Department described by W. R. Scott of the Division in favor of a new policy follows: "It was decided that, since of Latin American Affairs as control over the Treaty Services we could no longer exert a proper it would be better to turn over all for which we were responsible, far as this could be done conAmerican activities in Haiti in SO faith toward the obligations and our good sistently with our treaty holders of Haitian bonds." 56 lamented a long-time critic of the Occupation, Ernest Gruening, when the United States might conceivably that "Just at a time to the Haitians, the cumulative render some genuine assistance of cooperation difficult." 57 errors of the past render the possibility effective assistance Actually there was little possibility of rendering limitations precluded demoralization of personnel and fiscal since activities. In any case the United States sacrificed new development to the exigencies of a policy what little was left of the uplift programs a Haitianization withdrawal. Munro concluded that stressed rapid in August, 1931, after agreement with the Vincent government act of the and concessions on both sides, and as an goodwill threats of formally ending martial law. United States made the gesture but rather the The crucial issue, however, was not Haitianization financial interests. The of redefning the status of American problem abandoned its earlier encouragement and superState Department investments in view of the new policy of "narvision of American what little was left of the uplift programs a Haitianization withdrawal. Munro concluded that stressed rapid in August, 1931, after agreement with the Vincent government act of the and concessions on both sides, and as an goodwill threats of formally ending martial law. United States made the gesture but rather the The crucial issue, however, was not Haitianization financial interests. The of redefning the status of American problem abandoned its earlier encouragement and superState Department investments in view of the new policy of "narvision of American --- Page 253 --- WITHDRAWAL the activities in Haiti. > 58 An ironic indication of rowing American with respect to private investments reversal in American policy L. Farnham, who, as Bryan's conwas the decline and fall of Roger the 1915 intervention fidant, had played a major role in engineering support for the Naand in securing unflinching State Department Bank. By the late 1920s his tional Railway and for National City considerably. American influence with the department had declined railway confinancial advisers rejected several earlier exploitative in a Farnham, and in 1930 he was reduced, tracts proposed by backing, to threatening Amerifutile attempt to procure department French military intervention on bewith British and can officials with a French embargo on Haitian half of the National Railway, disclosures to the American press about coffee, and with personal upset the chairman of conditions in Haiti that would presumably de la Rue characterized 59 Financial Adviser the Republican party." that Farnham's desperate the threats as "wild," and Munro reported of little consequence since tactic of shutting down the railway was carrying on a destructive competition motor trucks were already additional traffic. Munro able to handle any and were entirely that Farnham had "aged a great deal . . confided to Francis White if to be increasing but his capacity for mischief seems, anything, rather than decreasing. >) 60 extending extraordinary The State Department's policy against and businessmen became more systematic assistance to American insisted that American finanstringent after 1929. The department withdrawal in order cial control continue after the pending troop holders of the 1922 bonds the existing commitments to to safeguard forbidden. The United States but new commitments were strictly permission to float a new refused to grant the Vincent government on post-1936 finandevelopment loan, stipulating that an agreement first, and that even would have to be reached cial arrangements States could not "in any sense urge or recommend then the United this business for Haiti."* In an to bankers that they undertake the chief of the Division of Latin April, 1933, policy memorandum, that the United States did not want to "exAmerican Affairs noted This printhe period of its financial stewardship. tend in any way mind in connection with any attempts on ciple must be borne in financing. 97 02 Thus Haiti's Haiti's part to obtain further foreign that an agreement first, and that even would have to be reached cial arrangements States could not "in any sense urge or recommend then the United this business for Haiti."* In an to bankers that they undertake the chief of the Division of Latin April, 1933, policy memorandum, that the United States did not want to "exAmerican Affairs noted This printhe period of its financial stewardship. tend in any way mind in connection with any attempts on ciple must be borne in financing. 97 02 Thus Haiti's Haiti's part to obtain further foreign --- Page 254 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 vaunted credit standing, achieved attentiveness to the interests of through ten years of diligent American naught, since the attractiveness of Haiti bondholders, came to tunity ultimately rested as an investment involvement. on the extent of United States opporgovernment The department's new policy of in Haiti had an immediate effect narrowing American activities branch, the Banque Nationale, on National City Bank, whose treasury and was inextricably served as the Haitian government the interests of American tied to the problem of safeguarding bondholders. Francis White, after a conversation Assistant Secretary of State resentative in July, 1930, with a National City Bank recorded: "The Bank repHoover is going to abandon the fears that President relations in the larger Central Caribbean area on behalf of better scuttle from Haiti, in which American countries and that we will White added that the event the Bank wants to scuttle also." 68 concerned about Bank was interested in selling out and was the marines public attacks in Congress and were in Haiti to protect its interests. elsewhere that City Bank made an unsolicited offer In 1933 National to the Haitian to sell the Banque Nationale government. Chairman of the Board explained the offer to Secretary of State James H. Perkins that, while the Banque Nationale Cordell Hull by asserting erate profits," it was "an anomalous was capable of returning "modaccount of its governmental element in our organization on caused National Bank character and functions" and had and private City to be "subjected to criticism from sources for controlling a bank in public has such functions.' >> e Perkins, in what another country which on the long collaboration in amounted to a final panegyric preciation of the Haiti, expressed the bank's "warm the State support and many courtesies" it had received from apFrench Department since the time it originally interests in the Banque Nationale "at the bought out the Honorable William Jennings Bryan. 92 64 suggestion of the The final sale of the Banque Nationale ment was not concluded until to the Haitian govern1935, by which e The American time, after various Armour that the offer manager of sale of the Banque Nationale, Walter such as those writing in the was Nation intended by Perkins as a gesture Voorhies, to silence told Minister tended to hold on to the Banque, which and had New Republic, but that Perkins really critics, inworst years of the Depression. 838.516/275, Norman made a steady return even during the Armour to Hull, Nov. 15, 1933. ale ment was not concluded until to the Haitian govern1935, by which e The American time, after various Armour that the offer manager of sale of the Banque Nationale, Walter such as those writing in the was Nation intended by Perkins as a gesture Voorhies, to silence told Minister tended to hold on to the Banque, which and had New Republic, but that Perkins really critics, inworst years of the Depression. 838.516/275, Norman made a steady return even during the Armour to Hull, Nov. 15, 1933. --- Page 255 --- WITHDRAWAL difficulties in obtaining ratification transaction included by the Haitian the a plan to transfer the legislature, financial supervision to the functions of American a board of directors Banque, which was to be controlled by bondholders," This dominated by representatives of the American plan, which proved to be bondholders, was the last in a series of State unacceptable to the to reduce the responsibility of the United Department attempts direct supervision of Haitian finances in States government for to protect the interests of the bondholders. fulfillment of obligations chief of the Division of Latin In 1933 Edwin C. Wilson, partment had rejected American Affairs, noted that the devarious Haitian American financial control because proposals for continued "they would have meant supervision over the collection of customs duties in merely effective control over the Haitian Haiti, with no penditures are kept in line with budget in order to see that exproblem of receipts. This is the crux of the maintaining Haiti's finances in Wilson described the American healthy condition." the basis for the subsequent counterproposal, which became as calling for the Executive Accord of August 7, 1933, whose replacement of the American financial powers were "exceedingly broad and are adviser, phases of the Haitian Government's exercised over all fiscal representative whose finances," with an American much more limited. The fiscal powers, according to Wilson, would be collect customs but would "merely representative would continue to Service and have supervise" the Internal Revenue ice of the custody over only those funds necessary for of foreign debt. There would be no "broad servpowers as under the 1915 treaty" and controls general grant government budget would be limited to those over the Haitian expenses are kept within the "necessary to see that partment hoped that the new Government's revenues." >, 66 The deto Haiti and would still agreement would be more palatable necessitated by contain the essential features of control The existing obligations to American Vincent government, itself bondholders. sure from extreme Haitian increasingly bold and under prestianization and withdrawal of nationalists the to procure immediate Hainecessary American marines, also wanted to tion for approval for use of cash procure a new foreign developmental reserves plus authorizaAmerican plan for continued financial loan and agreed to the control in September, 1932. 67 's revenues." >, 66 The deto Haiti and would still agreement would be more palatable necessitated by contain the essential features of control The existing obligations to American Vincent government, itself bondholders. sure from extreme Haitian increasingly bold and under prestianization and withdrawal of nationalists the to procure immediate Hainecessary American marines, also wanted to tion for approval for use of cash procure a new foreign developmental reserves plus authorizaAmerican plan for continued financial loan and agreed to the control in September, 1932. 67 --- Page 256 --- UNITED STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 a however, rejected the new treaty by The Haitian legislature, fervor. The United unanimous vote in an outburst of nationalistic accelerated HaitianizaStates continued to withhold approval on the financial tion and advance withdrawal of the marines pending Norman Arsettlement, and in January, 1983, American Minister reported that it who had replaced Munro in October, 1982, now mour, of the $400,000 credit might be possible "to trade our approval of future financial adoffered for a ratified accord on the question 93 68 The department refused ministration and other pending issues." materialized consider the proposed loan project, which never to of financial negotiations, while Vinanyhow, until after conclusion financial settlement after the tercent offered to agree to a future session in return for mination of the current obstructive Haitianization legislative and troop withpresent American concessions on ratification from the drawal." Ultimately the problem of securing American control, legislature, which opposed all forms of continued and Vincent and eliminated bypassing the legislature entirely, was by satisfactory agreement emthe United States reached a mutually 7, 1938. Under Secretary bodied in the Executive Accord of August Roosevelt that he was of State William Phillips wrote President outcome" of the negotiations and "highly gratified at the successful of American marines would pointed out that the early withdrawal United States throughout ce "greatly enhance the prestige" of the of practical applicaLatin America and would be "a signal example 70 tion of your policy of the 'good neighbor." American financial control for continued The Accord provided in American-sponfiscal as stipulated previous by a representative would control customs, insored versions. The fiscal representative limitations on the Haitian spect the Internal Revenue Service, set and control reserve funds. budget, and be able to set up government forbidden to increase its indebtedness, The Haitian government was of investments without his conchange tariffs and taxes, or dispose continue until all the outsent. This financial supervision was in to 1952, were liquidated. The standing bonds, scheduled to expire American troops by United States, in turn, agreed to withdraw before the 1936 date stipuOctober, 1934, one and one half years the number of Americans emlated in the 1915 treaty, and to limit ployed by the fiscal representative." control reserve funds. budget, and be able to set up government forbidden to increase its indebtedness, The Haitian government was of investments without his conchange tariffs and taxes, or dispose continue until all the outsent. This financial supervision was in to 1952, were liquidated. The standing bonds, scheduled to expire American troops by United States, in turn, agreed to withdraw before the 1936 date stipuOctober, 1934, one and one half years the number of Americans emlated in the 1915 treaty, and to limit ployed by the fiscal representative." --- Page 257 --- WITHDRAWAL defended the accord as the President Vincent and his supporters aroused under the circumstances, but the agreement best possible who considered it a disbitter protests from Haitian nationalists, substantial continuation of the astrous capitulation that entailed financial adviser." American exercised by the control previously charged that the accord validated critics, such as Ernest Gruening, acting as a collecting agent the "old deal" of the State Department 1933, Vincent, refor American financial interests." In November, to regain his dissatisfaction in Haiti and trying acting to political of Haiti's Second Independence, wrote stature as the champion that the United States give new President Roosevelt requesting renouncing 'useless financial proof of its Good Neighbor policy by that the United States could control in Haiti." Roosevelt replied bondholders: "Except not abandon its commitments to bondholders American are entitled to insist, which the for this obligation upon too to discontinue at once its Government would be only glad my with financial administration in Haiti."" connection the bondholders were moral, not legal; preThe commitments to from Haiti also Roosevelt's commitment to withdrawal sumably The issue did not die with the Vincent-Roosevelt was a moral one. the accord continued in the United exchange. Agitation against embarrassment at home, since it apStates and caused Vincent more active in championpeared that American organizations were himself. Moreover, the ing Haitian independence than Vincent was UruInter-American Conference at Montevideo, upcoming Seventh Haiti with a perfect opguay, held in December, 1933, provided United States for additional conportunity to apply pressure on the out by Ernest Gruening, cessions. This opportunity was pointed to the conference, himself a member of the American delegation then Haitian min1933, letter to Dantès Bellegarde, in a September, ister to Washington." route to the Montevideo Conference Secretary of State Hull, en effort to impress board the S.S. American Legion, made a special of on with the nonimperialistic aspects members of other delegations policy. Hull later recalled: the United States Good Neighbor as any of them. I tried to I was as much in favor of nonintervention I could in my preliminary converput this point over as emphatically as conference, himself a member of the American delegation then Haitian min1933, letter to Dantès Bellegarde, in a September, ister to Washington." route to the Montevideo Conference Secretary of State Hull, en effort to impress board the S.S. American Legion, made a special of on with the nonimperialistic aspects members of other delegations policy. Hull later recalled: the United States Good Neighbor as any of them. I tried to I was as much in favor of nonintervention I could in my preliminary converput this point over as emphatically as --- Page 258 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED need feel a desire to sations with delegations SO that no representatives attacks on us did the United States. Several line up for a fight against but they were actually not sO come from Cuban and Haitian delegates, strong as many had expected." on the way to Montevideo, Hull In wooing the Haitian delegation withdrawal of Amerimade ambiguous oral references to complete Barau, head of the Haitian delegation, can financial control. Justin Hull had been disposed to give "full satisreported to Vincent that that the continued financial faction" to Haiti and that he recognized he had told the Haitian while Hull said that control was "unjust," Government would agree to and delegation "that the American which would result in withdrawal would welcome an arrangement financial control of Haiti" and of American Government action in inform the Haitian governthat he had instructed the department to ment that a new arrangement was possible." credit for what apPresident Vincent, attempting to assume triumph for Haiti, released to local newspapers peared to be a great from Barau describing Hull's alleged the diplomatic correspondence to be earlier instructions along with what purported new position the Haitian delegation to press for new concessions. from Vincent to liberation of the counthe complete Haitian newspapers proclaimed Armour was left in the embarrassing try, while American Minister instructions from Washington to position of waiting for supposed United States desire to of a new inform the Haitian government Barau soon complained to change the financial arrangements." the promised new proHull that Armour had not communicated more to say." All the posal, and Hull replied that there was nothing Montevideo conference, resolved after the confusion was finally clear that there were no new concessions and when Hull made it "anxious desire" of the United that, while he had reaffirmed the with Haiti," States "to get released from this special relationship than lend moral support would do no more the State Department loan to cover the remaining to Haitian efforts to secure a refunding In January, 1984, Hull $11 million debt to American bondholders. we will imdeclared that "When the debts are eliminated, as the publicly out. We are just as anxious to withdraw mediately pull . Haitians are in wanting us to withdraw."s when Hull made it "anxious desire" of the United that, while he had reaffirmed the with Haiti," States "to get released from this special relationship than lend moral support would do no more the State Department loan to cover the remaining to Haitian efforts to secure a refunding In January, 1984, Hull $11 million debt to American bondholders. we will imdeclared that "When the debts are eliminated, as the publicly out. We are just as anxious to withdraw mediately pull . Haitians are in wanting us to withdraw."s --- Page 259 --- WITHDRAWAL in the mid-1930s and the Given the scarcity of investment capital to "extend in any of the United States government unwillingness 81 there was little hope way the period of its financial stewardship, discussions Hull had loan. During the Montevideo for a refunding alternative, that of having National also suggested another possible debt through its City Bank insure the collection of the outstanding the basis of Nationale." This idea became control of the Banque Nationale to the Haitian 1935 sale of the Banque the aforementioned for the transfer of the funcgovernment, which included provisions the American tions of American financial supervision to of Banque. the fact that their bondholders were to be protected by virtue board of directors of the would control the six-man representatives of whom were to be selected by the Haitian governBanque, two Bank, and two by the Foreign Bondment, two by National City however, refused to COholders Protective Council. The council, from the State Departoperate with the plan despite strong urging played a leading role in ment. Francis White, who had formerly secretary States financial policy in Haiti as assistant shaping United the American bondholders as of state and was now representing Bondholders Protective of the Foreign executive vice-president "would not provide Council, wrote Hull that the new arrangement of the bonds" as those to the holders guarantees as satisfactory the accord of August 7, 1933, in effect currently in force. 83 This left continued to supervise Haitian and an American fiscal representative were transferred by a new finances until 1941, when his functions Nationale, which to the fiscal department of the Banque of agreement States until full redemption remained under United supervision the 1922 loan was completed in 1947. commitments to American While the United States government's until the bonds were bondholders persisted as a source of contention and civilian perpaid, the withdrawal of American military fully smoothly according to the Haitianization agreesonnel proceeded the accord of August 7, 1933. A 1934 Haitian ment incorporated in recent Haitians had grown article stated that in years newspaper of the marines, who were accepted, apathetic to the presence accord the United States had agreed though unwelcome." In the October, 1934. As an extra goodwill to withdraw the last marines in visit to Cap Haitien in President Roosevelt, on a personal gesture, civilian perpaid, the withdrawal of American military fully smoothly according to the Haitianization agreesonnel proceeded the accord of August 7, 1933. A 1934 Haitian ment incorporated in recent Haitians had grown article stated that in years newspaper of the marines, who were accepted, apathetic to the presence accord the United States had agreed though unwelcome." In the October, 1934. As an extra goodwill to withdraw the last marines in visit to Cap Haitien in President Roosevelt, on a personal gesture, --- Page 260 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED that the last marines would leave by AuJuly, 1984, announced and his speech, which was partly in gust 15. Roosevelt's visit, in Haiti. It was the French, created a highly favorable impression chief of a foreign state had first time in Haitian history that the continued to visited the country. Roosevelt's personal graciousness and he rerelations in subsequent years warm Haitian-American for Haiti. In a 1943 dinner speech on the tained a special affection President Elie Lescot, Roosevelt reoccasion of a visit by Haitian of England who said that marked: "I think it was a certain Queen heart. When I die, after her death "Calais' would be written on her because for all I think 'Haiti' is going to be written on my heart in the Republic of these years I have had the most intense interest that will never and the development of its people in a way Haiti other nation." 32 85 As a final gesture of goodmean exploitation by any donated leftover buildings and miliwill in 1934 the United States the Haitian valued at $120,000 to government. the detary equipment the Carde on August 1 and The ceremony transferring and cordial. A of the marines on August 15 were dignified was lowparture wildly as the American flag crowd of 10,000 applauded by cheering, ered, and the marine embarkation was accompanied the Second Inhostile incidents. 86 A "Festival of but there were no 21, and President Vincent styled dependence" took place on August of Toussaint Louhimself the "Second Liberator" in the tradition verture and Jean Jacques Dessalines. --- Page 261 --- Epilogue interventions in Caribbean countries The series of American military of United States forces in Cuba in that had begun with the landing of Haiti ended with the termination of the military occupation the withdrawal of the marines from Haiti in August, 1934. While and Good Neighof noninterventionism reflected a new policy of American policy remained bor conviviality, the basic objectives alluded to a special American unchanged. In 1927 Henry L. Stimson Doctrine, which was distinct from the Monroe "Isthmian Policy," sel-determination": "The based upon the "principle of national however, imposed upon national safety of our own country has, influence the vital interest in guarding from foreign us a peculiar Sea and the Panama Canal, and sea route through the Caribbean for foreign intervention may therefore in seeing to it that no cause arise along the borders of that route.": American naval heFor the time being, recently established immediate foreign military in the Caribbean barred any the gemony and the United States correspondingly de-emphasized more threat, facets of its presence in favor of achieving overt military with all of Latin America. friendly relations of the 1930s was, in terms of means The Good Neighbor policy policy of force diplomacy. if not ends, the antithesis of the previous embarrassment to the of Haiti had been a grave The occupation convince Latin-American nations that United States in its efforts to Roosevelt's Big Stick policy, repudiating Theodore it was genuinely in the Caribbean barred any the gemony and the United States correspondingly de-emphasized more threat, facets of its presence in favor of achieving overt military with all of Latin America. friendly relations of the 1930s was, in terms of means The Good Neighbor policy policy of force diplomacy. if not ends, the antithesis of the previous embarrassment to the of Haiti had been a grave The occupation convince Latin-American nations that United States in its efforts to Roosevelt's Big Stick policy, repudiating Theodore it was genuinely --- Page 262 --- STATES OCCUPATION OF HAITI, 1915-1934 UNITED subseof the occupation served to cast doubts on and the memory of respect for the sovereignty and quent American protestations those nations. Indeed, when situations political independence of States decided that its vital eventually arose in which the United means, the noninterinterests could not be secured through peaceful of Pigs invasion of The 1961 Bay vention doctrine was scrapped. and the 1965 marine intervention in Cuba, the Johnson Doctrine, the continuity of the same the Dominican Republic demonstrated of regional heprinciples of national security and assumptions intervention in Haiti. In gemony that governed the 1915 marine François Duvalier's con1963, at the expiration of Haitian President brigade stood off stitutional term of office, a marine expeditionary disorders, which failed Port-au-Prince in anticipation of political to materialize." the Good Neighbor policy in the late Irrespective of the shift to continued to view Haiti 1920s and early 1930s, American officials In 1932 Minister to Haiti Dana as a special United States preserve. new French loan because it G. Munro, arguing against permitting French a control or new American would probably lead to either Doctrine is still just as esintervention, noted that "The Monroe 8 The United sential as it ever was to our safety and comfort." Haiti after the withStates continued to play a dominant role in until 1947 drawal of the marines, with financial control continuing trade regained its while the American share of the Haitian import of decline in the 1930s. previous level of 75 percent after a period exercised great influence After World War II the United States aid e The loans and foreign projects. through control of government continues to play a major American embassy in Port-au-Prince role, in Haitian internal and role, many Haitians believe a dominant external politics. phenomenon of growing disparity In view of the international nations and impoverished underin wealth between rich industrial little from almost twenty years developed nations, Haiti profited control. Economic development of direct and complete American Haiti with $62 million United States provided a From 1945 to the mid-1960s the Leslie F. Haiti of the Sixties, Object of in grants and $33 million in loans. Washington Manigat, Center of Foreign Policy Research, International Concern (Washington: 1964),. 19. role, many Haitians believe a dominant external politics. phenomenon of growing disparity In view of the international nations and impoverished underin wealth between rich industrial little from almost twenty years developed nations, Haiti profited control. Economic development of direct and complete American Haiti with $62 million United States provided a From 1945 to the mid-1960s the Leslie F. Haiti of the Sixties, Object of in grants and $33 million in loans. Washington Manigat, Center of Foreign Policy Research, International Concern (Washington: 1964),. 19. --- Page 263 --- EPILOGUE exclusive factors of Haiti's lack of natwas stymied by the mutually expectation of lucrative profits ural resources and the prerequisite and entrepreneurs. In the insisted upon by American investors were still themselves an index of impoverishment, 1960s low wages, American capital. American efforts to the major basis for attracting of superior moral and technical uplift Haiti through the example of racial and cultural barriers attainment failed, partly because relations between the development of sympathetic which prevented American civil service reform, for instance, Haitians and Americans. Haitian politics reverted to had little impact. After the occupation, administrations installed whereby successive the "spoils system" their own partisans in public office." of the Occupation Even the substantial material accomplishments had been made proved to be largely ephemeral. Notable progress The Occupation cleaned in the fields of sanitation and public health. health clinics. An Amerithe streets and built hospitals and rural stated that up various colonial situations can author who investigated under the Occupation in Haiti compared the public health services the British colonies of Kenya, Uganda, satisfactorily with those in and with the American British East Africa, and British West Africa, were inadequate facilities in Puerto Rico. These facilities, however, swelling of the the occupation, and with the subsequent during population became even more SO. construction of bridges, schools, Public works projects, such as the since fallen into decay. In a and communications systems, have Marine Colonel Robrecent paper on the impact of the occupation, of the United States military ert D. Heinl, Jr., who served as head describes the current state of mission to Haiti from 1958 to 1963, follows: "infrastructural" achievements as Occupation non-existence. The satelTelephones are gone. Roads are approaching their docks crumbling away. lite ports are obstructed by silt and wrecks, sanitation and electrificaUrban improvements are in decay and collapse; decline. Curiously, the only effection are, to say the least, in precarious infrastructural benefits is the modest tive survivor of the occupation's unchanged since 1934, now provide network of grass air-strips which, than the bourrique Haiti with its sole pervasive system of transport-other [donkey]. , follows: "infrastructural" achievements as Occupation non-existence. The satelTelephones are gone. Roads are approaching their docks crumbling away. lite ports are obstructed by silt and wrecks, sanitation and electrificaUrban improvements are in decay and collapse; decline. Curiously, the only effection are, to say the least, in precarious infrastructural benefits is the modest tive survivor of the occupation's unchanged since 1934, now provide network of grass air-strips which, than the bourrique Haiti with its sole pervasive system of transport-other [donkey]. --- Page 264 --- 1915-1934 OCCUPATION OF HAITI, UNITED STATES of the most significant legacy The network of roads, potentially because almost all roads were undidn't last long the occupation, elaborate maintenance. debt to American paved and required of retiring the Haitian Haiti of The Occupation's policy deprived bondholders in advance of contract requirements been used for development revenues which might have and did not result in any surplus during the prosperous 1920s In 1932 former Financial projects subsequent advantages. advance debt recountervailing who had promoted Adviser W. W. Cumberland, remarked: tirement during the mid-1920s, finances have all of us who have handled Haitian of what has It seems to me that and even a little pride, in selling view higher than reason for complacence bonds are now happened elsewhere. . . . Haitian country, I think, with the exception and that those of any other Latin American that Cuba will soon go into default of of Cuba. And I predict This is the direct result of our policy generous Haiti will continue to pay. as possible and accumulating diminishing the debt as rapidly cash balances." have been a source record of debt payment may but the alleged The excellent to American bondholders, failed to maof great satisfaction terms of higher credit standing, record of benefits to Haiti, in fact that Haiti had an exemplary terialize. Despite the fell to a low of 68% on the depressed Haitian bonds residual aura of financial debt payment, in 1933, and any loan terms after the New York Stock Exchange have procured favorable of further soundness that might with the relinquishment like was destroyed financial policy, world depression Occupation interests. On American financial responsibility" looked first to American facets of the occupation, the Banque most American fiscal reforms strengthened the positive side, created a sound national currency. changes in Nationale and resulted in a number of important isolaThe occupation and political life. The century-long Haitian economic, social, outside world was rudely terminated from the both economic and tion of the country into a close relationship, subseas Haiti was drawn United States. American businessmen and sisal inpolitical, with the leading roles in local sugar, banana, The use of Portquently played of a tourist industry. dustries, and the beginnings occupation, the Banque most American fiscal reforms strengthened the positive side, created a sound national currency. changes in Nationale and resulted in a number of important isolaThe occupation and political life. The century-long Haitian economic, social, outside world was rudely terminated from the both economic and tion of the country into a close relationship, subseas Haiti was drawn United States. American businessmen and sisal inpolitical, with the leading roles in local sugar, banana, The use of Portquently played of a tourist industry. dustries, and the beginnings --- Page 265 --- EPILOGUE au-Prince as a liberty port for United additional contact with States Navy ships brought a crucial role in foreigners. Haiti's sisal plantations played tary effort supplying naval cordage for the United States miliduring World War II, and the stantial American technical country received subPolitically, the assistance in the postwar era. military development of the Garde d'Haiti as an organization plus the of efficient tions networks resulted in building functioning communicalitical authority in the a decisive centralization of Haitian aftermath of the poceived of as a nonpartisan occupation. The Garde, conpolitics and ensure orderly peacekeeping force that would dominate strument of political domination. constitutional processes, became an inNicaragua, As in the Dominican Republic and nonpartisan American-sponsored ideal but did have constabularies fell far short of the politics.10 While the the desired effect of creation of a stabilizing force in Haiti did not result in powerful, centralized military to the Somoza and Trujillo long-term dictatorships comparable Republic, political regimes in Nicaragua and the Dominican the entire strongmen in Port-au-Prince were able to country more effectively than ever control degree of centralization under the before. The high missioner had been based authoritarian rule of a high comment on the Garde and on an extensive bureaucracy. Under the Americans, Haitian governwere deliberately shifted from district Garde personnel down local prejudices and to district in order to break governmental institutions associations. Remnants of the centralized by successive Haitian and chains of command were taken over along with the roads and governments. In time the Garde deteriorated tral political domination telephone system, but the pattern of cenpersists. American racism and instances of boorish spurred the development of a new kind of military dictation The ideology of national and racial négritude, a direct reaction to white pride, domination, has become an important factor American President François Duvalier, who in Haitian politics. the black-nationalist as a young man contributed to literature of the changed the national flag from blue and génération de Toccupation, attempted to establish ties with red to black and red, and self-professed heir to the emerging African nations. "black revolution" : of Duvalier, regime as embodying the victory of the 1946, promoted his masses over the oligarchy. négritude, a direct reaction to white pride, domination, has become an important factor American President François Duvalier, who in Haitian politics. the black-nationalist as a young man contributed to literature of the changed the national flag from blue and génération de Toccupation, attempted to establish ties with red to black and red, and self-professed heir to the emerging African nations. "black revolution" : of Duvalier, regime as embodying the victory of the 1946, promoted his masses over the oligarchy. --- Page 266 --- 1915-1984 OCCUPATION OF HAITI, UNITED STATES mulatto as236 after the period of atof black politicians can itself be partly The triumph associated with the occupation Aside from the cendancy during the occupation. to the tributed to forces generated the Occupation contributed obvious impact of négritude, serious inroads into the privileged which resulted in for the Garde social mobility Blacks were recruited as soldiers Service Techposition of the elite. Service Technique. While the was an imand students for the successful in this respect, the Garde who were nique proved less for illiterate blacks, avenue of social mobility and opportunity for promotion portant education limited in scope able to obtain secondary the first time education, however the nineteenin the Garde. For to the population at large. Also, of nonelite and purpose, was open brigade created a progeny conof the marine "brown" middle class, year presence the occupation, a new has mulattoes. Since skilled workers, and shopkeepers, of the sisting of civil servants, exclusive position in the previously to advances emerged to challenge similarly contributed to the elite." The American presence Haitian women had been subject functions; the emancipation of women. rights and limited social and Code, with few legal women took jobs as teachers Napoleonic under the stress of the occupation, political movements." and became active in patriotic role in the development secretaries also played a significant of the corps during The occupation Corps. With the rapid expansion rose to top ranks, of the Marine veterans of Haitian service World War II many became commandants. lives of most including three who did not directly alter the in 1931 that In general the occupation Adviser Sidney de la Rue reported of Haitian Haitians. Financial little effect on the mass subwas having usual wants through the Depression able to supply their the decline who were injured by peasants, and were not grievously the occupation failed sistence agriculture In the same fashion in the daily lives of marginal cash crops." social and economic changes Herskovits, who to work fundamental anthropologist Melville J. concerns the of the masses. American in 1934, noted that "as have passed studied the Mirebalais Valley seems to life of this valley it [the occupation) 18 assessments by inner discernible effect"" The pessimistic that Haiti had made without any in the early 1930s were borne out officials of the occupation economic or political progress little fundamental In the same fashion in the daily lives of marginal cash crops." social and economic changes Herskovits, who to work fundamental anthropologist Melville J. concerns the of the masses. American in 1934, noted that "as have passed studied the Mirebalais Valley seems to life of this valley it [the occupation) 18 assessments by inner discernible effect"" The pessimistic that Haiti had made without any in the early 1930s were borne out officials of the occupation economic or political progress little fundamental --- Page 267 --- EPILOGUE by subsequent developments. By the mid-1960s Haiti had the lowest life expectancy, the lowest per capita calory intake, the lowest per capita gross national product, the lowest literacy rate (10 percent), and the lowest percentage of children in school of any LatinAmerican country; 16 the morbid specter of expending population and inadequate food supply envisioned by the Occupation officials was becoming a reality. --- Page 268 --- BLANK PAGE --- Page 269 --- Notes Abbreviations used in the notes are listed ranks are abbreviated below. In addition, thus, Colonel, United according to common United States military military and Rear States Marine Corps is abbreviated usage: Admiral, United States Navy is abbreviated COL, USMC; RADM, USN. Beach MS Edward L. Beach, CAPT, USN, "Admiral Caperton in Haiti," unpublished MS, Jan. 13, 1920, National Archives, Naval Records ColCR lection, RC45, Box 850. Cumberland MSS U.S., Congressional Record (various volumes). Reminiscences of Dr. William W. Cumberland, 1951, Oral History Research Office, Daniels MSS Columbia University. Papers of Josephus Daniels, Library of ConForbes Commission gress. Papers Records of the President's Commission for the Study and Review of Conditions in the FR lic of Haiti, 1930, National Archives, RG220, RepubU.S., Department of State, Papers to the Foreign Relations of the United Relating States LC (Washington, various years and volumes). Lejeune MSS Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. Papers of John A. Lejeune, Library of ConMARCORPS HQ Haiti Haiti gress. MSS, U.S. MSS Historical Marine Corps Headquarters MARCORPS MUS U.S. Section, Alexandria, Va, NA Marine Corps Museum, Quantico, Va. NA, RG45 National Archives, Washington, D.C. National Archives, Naval Records Collection, NA, RG80 Record Group 45. National Archives, General Records of the DeNA, RG127 partment of the Navy, Record Group 80. National Archives, Records of the U.S. Marine Corps, Record Group 127. of ConMARCORPS HQ Haiti Haiti gress. MSS, U.S. MSS Historical Marine Corps Headquarters MARCORPS MUS U.S. Section, Alexandria, Va, NA Marine Corps Museum, Quantico, Va. NA, RG45 National Archives, Washington, D.C. National Archives, Naval Records Collection, NA, RG80 Record Group 45. National Archives, General Records of the DeNA, RG127 partment of the Navy, Record Group 80. National Archives, Records of the U.S. Marine Corps, Record Group 127. --- Page 270 --- NOTES TO PAGES 3-18 New York Times (various dates). NYT Record Group (referring to the Record Groups RG in the National Archives). Franklin D. MSS Papers of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Roosevelt Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, N.Y. Decimal File, National ArState Department SD chives, Record Group 59. and AdU.S. Senate, Inquiry into Occupation Senate Hearings, ministration of Haiti and Santo Domingo, Before a Select Committee on Halti Hearings 67th Cong, 1st and 2d and Santo Domingo, Sess., 1922. Francis White, National Archives, White MSS Papers of Records of the State Department, General Record Group 59. CHAPTER 1 Williams, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy 1. William Appleman Co., 1962, rev. ed.). Arno J. Mayer, Politics (New York: Dell Publishing Containment and Counterrecolution at and Diplomacy of Peacemaking: York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967). N. Gordon Versailles, 1918-1919 (New and World Politics (New York: Oxford Univ. Levin, Jr., Woodrow Wilson Press, 1968). BRIG GEN, USA, before the Sen2. Testimony of Robert P. Hughes, quoted in Henry F. Graff (ed.), ate Committee on the Philippines (1902), Insurrection (Boston: Little, American Imperialism and the Philippine Brown & Co., 1969), p. 65. Intervention: The Military Occu8. Allan Reed Millett, The Politics State of Univ. Press, 1968), p. 7. pation of Cuba, 1906-1909 (Ohio and the Gospel of Effictency: The 4. See Samuel P. Hays, Conservation 1890-1920 (Cambridge: Harvard Progressive Conservation Movement, The Triumph of Conservatism (New Univ. Press, 1959); Gabriel Kolko, Haber, Eficiency and Uplift: SciYork: Free Press, 1963); and Samuel 1890-1920 (Chicago: Univ. of entific Management in the Progressive Era, Chicago Press, 1964). Modernization in Italy: Traditional or 5. See Roland Sarti, "Fascist Historical Review, LXXV, No. 4 (April, 1970), Revolutionary?" American 1029-45. Waller, COL, USMC, to John A. Lejeune, COL, 6. Littleton W. T. Container 4. USMC, Oct. 13, 1915; Lejeune MSS, 1963); and Samuel 1890-1920 (Chicago: Univ. of entific Management in the Progressive Era, Chicago Press, 1964). Modernization in Italy: Traditional or 5. See Roland Sarti, "Fascist Historical Review, LXXV, No. 4 (April, 1970), Revolutionary?" American 1029-45. Waller, COL, USMC, to John A. Lejeune, COL, 6. Littleton W. T. Container 4. USMC, Oct. 13, 1915; Lejeune MSS, --- Page 271 --- NOTES TO PAGES 19-24 CHAPTER 2 discussion of Haiti before 1915 is based largely on 1. The following cited when information is of secondary sources which are not specifically include C. L. R. James, nature. These sources a general or uncontroversial York: Vintage Books, 1963); James G. Leyburn, The Black Jacobins (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1966); Rayford W. The Haitian People (New Republic (New York: Oxford Univ. Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Relations of the United States with Press, 1968), and The Diplomatic Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1941); Haiti: 1776-1891 (Chapel Hill: and the United States; 1714-1938 (DurLudwell Lee Montague, Haiti G. Munro, Intervention and Dollar ham: Duke Univ. Press, 1940); Dana Princeton Univ. Diplomacy in the Caribbean; 1900-1921 (Princeton: The Story of Haiti (New Press, 1964); H. P. Davis, Black Democracy: "Un Dominion intellectuel York: Dial Press, 1928); Louis Morpeau, de PAmérique latine, 30 Année, VIII français: Haiti (1789-1924)," Revue "La Substitution de la prépon- (1924), 332-41; and Leslie F. Manigat, française en Haiti au début du dérance américaine a la prépondérance Revue d'histotre moderne et XX siècle: la conjoncture de 1910-1911," 1967), 321-55. There never had contemporaine XIV (October-December, or literacy. The above been a systematic census of Haitian population "The American Intervention in estimates are taken from Carl Kelsey, American Academy of Haiti and the Dominican Republic," Annals of 109 ff. Political and Social Science, C (March, 1922), 2. Davis, pp. 23-26. Montague, p. 5. 3. James, p. 50. 4. Leyburn, 18n. society by J. S. Furnivall, quoted in 5. Generic definition of a plural Caribbean Race Relations (London: H. Hoetink, The Two Variants of Oxford Univ. Press, 1967), p. 91. Haitian People, see Jean Price-Mars, 6. For a critique of Leyburn's de James G. Leyburn," "Classe ou casteP Etude sur "The Haitian People' d'Haiti XIII, No. 46 Revue de la Société d'Histoire et de Géographie (July, 1942), 1-50. "Le Rôle du 7. Jean Price-Mars quoted in O. Mennesson-Rigaud, (Paris) XVIIId'Haiti," Présence Africaine Vaudou dans Tindépendance XIX (February-May, 1958), 43-67. pp. 98-97. George 8. Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, et de la famille au lendemain Séjourné, "Etablissement de la propriété d'Historie et de Géographie Revue de la Société de T'indépendance," 1935), 9-32. d'Haiti VI, No. 17 (January, ) XVIIId'Haiti," Présence Africaine Vaudou dans Tindépendance XIX (February-May, 1958), 43-67. pp. 98-97. George 8. Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, et de la famille au lendemain Séjourné, "Etablissement de la propriété d'Historie et de Géographie Revue de la Société de T'indépendance," 1935), 9-32. d'Haiti VI, No. 17 (January, --- Page 272 --- NOTES TO PAGES 24-36 in a Haitian Valley (New York: Octagon 9. Melville J. Herskovits, Life W. Mintz, "Peasant Markets," ScienBooks, 1964), chaps. iv, xiii. Sidney 1960), 112f. tific American, CCIII, No. 2 (August, 141-51, for a historio10. See Logan, Diplomatic Relations . of 2 pp. various factors leading to graphic discussion of the relative importance the French decision to sell Louisiana. 11. Ibid., pp. 47, 53. submitted to U.S. Senate, Select 12. Navy Department Memorandum Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 63. Committee on Haiti and Santo Domingo; Relations . . 9 p. 399. 13. Adee quoted in Logan, Diplomatic Under American Control: 1915-1930 14. Arthur C. Millspaugh, Haiti 18n. (Boston: World Peace Foundation, 1931), the Financial Adoiser-Ceneral 15. Republic of Haiti, Annual Report of Annual Report, Financial Receiver, 1926, p. 32. Referred to hereafter as Adviser (various years). Santo Domingo and Haitl; A Cruise 16. Samuel Guy Inman, Through in Latin AmerYork: Committee on Cooperation with the Marines (New ica, 1919?), p. 73. française (Port-au-Prince, 1925), 17. Alfred Nemours, Ma campagne Histoire littéraire de TAmérique p. 261, quoted in Auguste Viatte, Presses universitaires de France, française; des origines a 1950 (Paris: 1954), p. 429. My translation. H. Furniss to Knox, Apr. 30, 1912. 18. Quoted in SD 838.42/-, Plans for Employment of Naval Forces 19. "D' Confidential Tentative (ca. July, 1914); NA, RG45, Stationed in Haitien Ports-Fort-auPdacs" WA-7, Box 631. Stabler to w.J. Bryan, May 18, 1914. Roger 20. SD 838.00/1667, J. H. National City Bank, estimated that 90% L. Farnham, vice-president controlled of by Germans on the eve of American of Haitian business was 110. intervention; Senate Hearings, 1922, p. XIV, 821-55. Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, 21. Manigat, 326. 22. Davis, p. 151. Munro, p. L. Ton Evans; Senate Hearings, 1922, 23. Testimony of the Reverend with a German banker who p. 156. Evans told of a 1911 conversation financed Haitian revolutions from Berlin. 35%. SD 838.51/283, Furniss to 24. Rates of interest were as high as Stabler to Bryan, May 18, 1914. Knox, Sept. 26, 1911; also 838.00/1667, 25. Montague, p. 163. Investments of United States Capital 26. Ibid., p. 172. Max Winkler, Peace Foundation Pamphlets, XI, No. in Latin America (Boston: World 6, 1928), 274. 1911 conversation financed Haitian revolutions from Berlin. 35%. SD 838.51/283, Furniss to 24. Rates of interest were as high as Stabler to Bryan, May 18, 1914. Knox, Sept. 26, 1911; also 838.00/1667, 25. Montague, p. 163. Investments of United States Capital 26. Ibid., p. 172. Max Winkler, Peace Foundation Pamphlets, XI, No. in Latin America (Boston: World 6, 1928), 274. --- Page 273 --- NOTES TO PAGES 36-40 27. Montague, p. 199. 28. Ibid. 29. Millspaugh, p. 21. Nationale des Chemins de Fer 30. Charles M. DuPuy, "La Compagnie Internationale des Hommes d'Affatres d'Haiti," La Revue de TAssociation No. 4 (October-November, 1923), d'Haiti (Port-au-Prince), lere Année, 74-78. & Co. to Huntington Wilson, Aug. 12, 1910. 31. SD 838.51/81, Speyer vice-president of National City 32. Testimony of Roger L. Farnham, of Haiti; Senate Hearings, Bank and president of the National Railway 1922, pp. 106-7. stockholders submitted to the department by 33. SD 838.77/899, list of Mar. 30, 1931. Farnham in 1924, attached to W. R. Scott Memorandum, 34. Munro, p. 332. américaine a la préponde35. "La Substitution de la préponderance siècle: la de 1910en Haiti au début du XXe conjoncture rance française moderne et contemporaine XIV (October-Decem1911," Revue d'histoire ber, 1967), 321-55. & Co. to Huntington Wilson, Aug. 12, 1910. 36. SD 838.51/81, Speyer National City Bank, to Knox, SD 838.51/72, M. E. Ailes, representing to Wilson, July 4, 1910. Also SD 838.51/74, H. M. Hoyt Huntington June 6, 1910. Nationale de la République d'Haiti," sub37. Memorandum "Banque National City Bank on Feb. 12, mitted to the Forbes Commission by 1980; Forbes Commission Papers, Box 1. Banque Contract. 38. See SD 838.00/1377 for a copy of the 1910 1910. For a listing of the 39. SD 838.51/198, Hoyt to Knox, Oct. A. 14, A. Adee to American Legadepartment's objections, see 838.51/119a, tion, Port-au-Prince, Oct. 12, 1910. of the Ameragreement signed by representatives 40. SD 838.51/204, Bank of Haiti, addressed to the Secretary ican participants in the National and Knox to American participants, Jan. of State (Knox), Jan. 10, 1910, 11, 1911. to Knox, May 1, 1911. Philip W. 41. SD 838.51/240, F. A. Vanderlip Papers, Columbia to Vanderlip, Nov. 1, 1910; Frank A. Vanderlip Henry Univ. Library. Walter T. Rosen, on behalf of American parti42. See SD 838.51/218, W. Wickersham, asking him to prod cipants, to Attorney General George of the contract, Dec. 18, 1910. the State Department for approval 1, 1911. 43. SD 838.51/240, Vanderlip to Knox, May . SD 838.51/240, F. A. Vanderlip Papers, Columbia to Vanderlip, Nov. 1, 1910; Frank A. Vanderlip Henry Univ. Library. Walter T. Rosen, on behalf of American parti42. See SD 838.51/218, W. Wickersham, asking him to prod cipants, to Attorney General George of the contract, Dec. 18, 1910. the State Department for approval 1, 1911. 43. SD 838.51/240, Vanderlip to Knox, May --- Page 274 --- NOTES TO PAGES 41-48 of Economic and Social Affairs, For44. United Nations, Department Sales No.: 1954, II.G.4 (1954), 6. eign Capital in Latin America, United States Capital in Latin America, 45. Winkler, Investments of p. 275. CHAPTER 3 Financial Adviser-General Re1. Testimony of John A. Mcllhenny, 1922, p. 1225. ceiver of the Republic of Haiti; Senate Hearings, Feb. 10, 1932. State Department Press Release, 2. SD 838.51/2393, of Foreign Bondholders, Forty-Second 3. Council of the Corporation Wertheimer, Lea & Co., 1916?), pp. Annual Report, 1915 (London: 375-76. 3, 1905, quoted in Philip C. Jessup, 4. Root to H. M. Flagler, Jan. Mead & Co., 1938), I, 471. Elihu Root (New York: Dodd, syndrome led to American 5. For a description of how the loan-default Melvin M. Knight, The intervention in the Dominican Republic, York: see Vanguard Press, 1928), pp. Americans in Santo Domingo (New v-xi. 6. Knox speech, Apr. 3, 1912; FR, 1912, p. 545. Wilson, ed. Albert Shaw, 7. The Messages and Papers of Woodrow 1924), p. 401. Vol. I (New York: Review of Reviews Corp., The Imperialspeech, 1900, quoted in Louis L. Snyder (ed.), 8. Bryan D. Van Nostrand Co., 1962), p. 401. ism Reader (Princeton: The New Freedom (Princeton: Princeton 9. Arthur S. Link, Wilson, Univ. Press, 1956), p. 329. in honor of Uruguayan delegation 10. Bryan speech at banquet given May 27, 1915, enclosed in to the Pan-American Financial Conference, 1915; Frank A. Vanderlip Papers, Bryan letter to Vanderlip, May 27, Columbia Univ. The Struggle for Neutrality: 1914-1915 11. Arthur S. Link, Wilson, 498. (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1960), p. in Haiti," Current 12. John H. Allen, "An Inside View of Revolutions History, XXXII (May, 1930), 325-29. Neutrality, p. 499. Professor Link 13. Link, Wilson, The Struggle for it was a case of the blind leading says, "In Caribbean policy, therefore, the blind." Receiver General of Customs, Dominican 14. Bryan to Walter W. Vick, in NYT, Jan. 15, 1915, p. 6. Republic, Aug. 20, 1913, quoted Mar. 26, 1915; also 15. SD 838.00/1151a, Bryan to A. Bailly-Blanchard, Mar. 27, 1915. Also Bryan to 838.00/1152, Bailly-Blanchard to Bryan, Wilson, Apr. 3, 1915; NA, Bryan-Wilson Correspondence. General of Customs, Dominican 14. Bryan to Walter W. Vick, in NYT, Jan. 15, 1915, p. 6. Republic, Aug. 20, 1913, quoted Mar. 26, 1915; also 15. SD 838.00/1151a, Bryan to A. Bailly-Blanchard, Mar. 27, 1915. Also Bryan to 838.00/1152, Bailly-Blanchard to Bryan, Wilson, Apr. 3, 1915; NA, Bryan-Wilson Correspondence. --- Page 275 --- NOTES TO PAGES 48-52 for Neutrality, p. 523. Also Munro, 16. Link, Wilson, The Struggle 332, 338. Intervention and Dollar Diplomacy, pp. Correspondence. 17. Bryan to Wilson, July 1, 1914; NA, Bryan-Wilson la d'Haiti," sub- "Banque Nationale de République 18. Memorandum by National City Bank, Feb. 12, 1930; mitted to the Forbes Commission Forbes Commission Papers, Box 1. memorandum "The Bank," unsigned, 19. Office of Naval Intelligence Written by a Naval Officer," undated, ca. 1915, annotated "Confidential, Officer, U.S.S. Connecticut, by E. H. Durell, CAPT, USN, Commanding 1915; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 631. in Haitian waters August-September, by the bankers, see SD 838.51/ Also, for assurances given the department in the National Bank of 204, agreement signed by American participants 10, 1911. addressed to the Secretary of State (Knox), Jan. Haiti, Furniss to Bryan, July 24, 1913. Also 838.51/290, 20. SD 838.77/95, Furniss to Knox, Nov. 7, 1911. 18, 1911. Also Office of Naval 21. SD 838.51/266, Furniss to Knox, Aug. RG45, WA-7, Box 631. Intelligence memorandum "The Bank"; NA, 1911. Also 838.51/298, Furniss to Knox, Nov. 9, 22. SD 838.51/291, J. A. Doyle to HuntingDivision of Latin American Affairs memorandum, ton Wilson, Dec. 28, 1911. Policy and Economic Develop23. O. Ernest Moore, "Monetary-Fiscal No. 3 (1954), 230-53. The exchange ment in Haiti," Public Finance, IX, the dollar in 1909 to 3.5 gourdes to rate of the gourde rose from 5.63 to the dollar in 1912. memorandum "The Bank"; NA, RG45, 24. Office of Naval Intelligence "The Political History of the OccuWA-7, Box 631. Also Paul H. Douglas, Haiti (New York: in Emily G. Balch and others, Occupied pation," Co., 1927), pp. 15-36. Writers Publishing Nationale; son histoire-ses pro25. Joseph Chatelain, La Banque de l'indépenCollection du Tricinquantenaire blèmes (Port-au-Prince: Solon Menos, Haitian minisdance d'Haiti, 1954), p. 105. SD 838.516/50, 1915. The search was made after ter to Washington, to Bryan, Jan. the 11, vaults and taken to New York on $500,000 had been removed from the U.S.S. Machias. to Bryan, Aug. 31, 1914. 26. SD 838.51/350, Bailly-Blanchard 1914; FR, 1914, pp. 345-46. 27. M. R. Smith to Bryan, June 9, 1914; ibid., pp. 373-75. to Bryan, Dec. 24, 28. Bailly-Blanchard memorandum to Bryan, June 23, 1914. 29. SD 838.51/494, unsigned memorandum "The Bank"; NA, RG45, 30. Office of Naval Intelligence WA-7, Box 631. . 26. SD 838.51/350, Bailly-Blanchard 1914; FR, 1914, pp. 345-46. 27. M. R. Smith to Bryan, June 9, 1914; ibid., pp. 373-75. to Bryan, Dec. 24, 28. Bailly-Blanchard memorandum to Bryan, June 23, 1914. 29. SD 838.51/494, unsigned memorandum "The Bank"; NA, RG45, 30. Office of Naval Intelligence WA-7, Box 631. --- Page 276 --- NOTES TO PAGES 52-56 in to American Interests "Confidential Memorandum in Respect at the State Depart31. Bank of Haiti," dictated by Farnham Mar. 27, 1915; NA, the National enclosed in Bryan to Wilson, ment, Mar. 27, 1915, Bryan-Wilson Correspondence. to American 32. Munro, p. 332. Memorandum in Respect "Confidential Correspond33. Farnham, National Bank of Hait'"; NA, Bryan-Wilson the National Railroad Interests in the Memorandum Concerning Mar. 27, 1915, ence. Also "Confidential Farnham at the State Department, Correof Haiti," dictated by Wilson, Mar. 27, 1915; NA, Bryan-Wilson 1914; 838.00/ enclosed in Bryan to Farnham to Bryan, Feb. 3, to Bryan, spondence. Also SD 838.00/801, 1914; 838.00/938, Farnham Farnham to Bryan, Feb. 5, 809, 1914. and the Dominican Republic June 19, investments in Cuba, Haiti, "German Investments 34. German $1 million. J. Fred Rippy, 1948), 63-73. in 1918 amounted to only XXI, No. 2 (April, Latin America," * Journal of Business, 13, 1914. in Stabler to Bryan, May to American 35. SD 838.00/1667, Memorandum in Respect Memorandum 36. Farnham, "Confidential Bank of Haiti," and "Confdential CorreInterests in the National Railroad of Haiti"; NA, Bryan-Wilson Concerning the National Correspondspondence. Mar. 27, 1915; NA, Bryan-Wilson 37. Bryan to Wilson, 1922, p. 106. Senate Hearings, ence. Ibid. Also testimony of Farnham, Correspondence 38. Apr. 3, 1915; NA, Bryan-Wison Corre39. Bryan to Wilson, Mar. 31, 1915; NA, Bryan-Wilson 40. Ibid. Wilson to Bryan, potential as seen by spondence. assessment of Haiti's economic A. MacCorkle, The 41. For a sanguine of West Virginia, see William of Haiti (New York: a former governor in Its Relation to the Republic Monroe Doctrine Co., 1915), pp. 25-26. 1914; FR, 1914, pp. 370-71. Neale Publishing Dec. 19, to Bally-Blanchard. Correspondence. 42. Bryan Wilson, Apr. 3, 1915; NA, Bryan-Wilson 43. Bryan to June 23, 1913; 44. Ibid. June 20, 1913, and Wilson to Bryan, June 14, 1913, 45. Bryan to Wilson, Correspondence. Also Bryan to Wilson, and Letters: 1915NA, Bryan-Wilson Stannard Baker, Woodrow Wilson, Life p. 87. quoted in Ray Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1937), 1914. 1917, VI (Garden City: Stabler memorandum, May 14, Bryan-Wilson Corre46. SD 838.00/1668, to Wilson, Apr. 3, 1915; NA, 47. Ibid. Also Bryan spondence. 14, 1913, 45. Bryan to Wilson, Correspondence. Also Bryan to Wilson, and Letters: 1915NA, Bryan-Wilson Stannard Baker, Woodrow Wilson, Life p. 87. quoted in Ray Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1937), 1914. 1917, VI (Garden City: Stabler memorandum, May 14, Bryan-Wilson Corre46. SD 838.00/1668, to Wilson, Apr. 3, 1915; NA, 47. Ibid. Also Bryan spondence. --- Page 277 --- NOTES TO PAGES 57-62 48. For a discussion of relative eve of World War I, see Montague, naval power in the Caribbean on the 83, 210-11. Haiti and the United States, pp. 18149. Robert Lansing, "Drama of the July 19, 1931, Pt. V, p. 4. Virgin Islands Purchase," NYT, 50. SD 838.00/1275A, 51. Lansing Lansing to Wilson, Aug. 2, 1915. Memoirs of Robert memorandum, July 11, 1915, in Robert Lansing, War 19-21. Also Lansing (New York: Bobbs-Merrill Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Co., 1935), pp. 52. Lansing to Senator Medill Republic, p. 125. Cong., 2d Sess., 1922, LXII, Pt. 6, 6485-88. McCormick, May 4, 1922; CR, 67th 53. SD 838.00/2006, Francis White to C. 54. Lansing, War Memoirs, p. 310. E. Hughes, Apr. 17, 1922. 55. Lansing memorandum "Present Nature and Doctrine and Its Need of Extent of the Monroe FR: The Lansing Papers, 1914-1920, Restatement," June 11 and Nov. 24, 1915; 56. Ibid. II, 460-70. 57. Wilson to Lansing, Nov. 29, 1915; 58. Daniels to William Allen ibid., p. 470. 59. For a detailed discussion White, Feb. 18, 1930; Daniels MSS. up to armed of State Department activities intervention, see Munro, leading 60. Farnham, "Confidential Pp. 333-51. Interests in the National Bank of Memorandum in Respect to American ence, Haiti"; NA, Bryan-Wilson Correspond61. Banque Nationale de Ia République d'Haiti FR, 1914, p. 365. Also Farnham to Bryan, Dec. 8, 1914; 62. Chatelain, La Banque Nationale, testimony, Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 122. 63. SD 838.00/793, pp. 105-6. 64. Bryan to Farnham to Bryan, Jan. 31, 1914. 1914; LC, Wilson Wilson, Mar. 24, 1914, and Wilson to Bryan, Mar. Papers, 26, 65. Munro, p. 337, Also SD 838.00/947a, July 10, 1914. 838.00/948, Bryan to L. W. Livingston, 66. Bryan to Bailly-Blanchard, Livingston to Bryan, July 12, 1914. 67, July 2, 1914; FR, 1914, Bailly-Blanchard to Bryan, Dec. pp. 347-50. 68. Bailly-Blanchard to 4, 1914; tbid., p. 363. Feb. 28, 1914; ibid., 340. Bryan, Dec. 2, 1914; ibid. Also Smith to p. Bryan, 69. Bryan to Bailly-Blanchard, Nov. 70. SD 838.00/1197, William 12, 1914; ibid., p. 359. 71. SD 838.51/354, E. V. Haniel Phillips memorandum, June 22, 1915. 1914. von Haimhausen to Phillips, July 25, 72. SD 838.00/1352, Phillips memorandum of secretary of the French Embassy in visit of de Laboulaye, Washington, July 29, 1915. p. Bryan, 69. Bryan to Bailly-Blanchard, Nov. 70. SD 838.00/1197, William 12, 1914; ibid., p. 359. 71. SD 838.51/354, E. V. Haniel Phillips memorandum, June 22, 1915. 1914. von Haimhausen to Phillips, July 25, 72. SD 838.00/1352, Phillips memorandum of secretary of the French Embassy in visit of de Laboulaye, Washington, July 29, 1915. --- Page 278 --- NOTES TO PAGES 62-67 Correspondence. 73. Bryan to Wilson, Apr. 3, 1915; NA, Bryan-Wilson 74. Munro, pp. 341-42. RADM, USN, governor of Virgin Islands, 75. Lansing to J. H. Oliver, quoted in Logan, Haiti and Jan. 30, 1918; LC, Papers of Robert Lansing, the Dominican Republic, p. 126. 1915; No. 26. France Aff. Etr. Haiti 76. Girard to Delcassé, Apr. 17, "La substitution de Pol. Etr. II (1909-18), 94-102, quoted in Manigat, française . e 9 > 323. américaine a la prépondérance la prépondérance (My translation.) memorandum "Notes and Recommenda77. SD 838.00/1391, Situation Phillips in Haiti," ca. Aug, 1915. tions on the Political CHAPTER 4 Daniels to U.S.S. Connecticut, July 21, 1914; NA, RG45, 1. Radiogram WA-7, Box 631. Reference No. 5-D: Republic of Haiti," Nov. 2. "War Portfolio No. 1, 9, 1914; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 636. of Naval Forces Stationed in 3. "Tentative Plans for Employment 1914; NA, RG45, WA-7, undated, ca. July, Haitien Ports-Port-au-Princs" Box 633. Register No. 4801A, "Haiti and Santo 4. Office of Naval Intelligence October to December, 1914; NA, RG45, Domingo-Plan of Occupation, WA-7, Box 633. Stabler to Lansing, Aug. 5, 1915. 5. SD 838.00/1426, of these events by the secretary of the 6. For an eyewitness account Jr., to Lansing, Jan. 12, 1916; FR, 1916, U.S. legation, see R. B. Davis, after the massacre and saw Sam's pp. 310-20. Davis visited the prison of Sam, see also Jean in the streets. For a defense body being paraded Vilbrun Guillaume-Sam, ce méconnu (PortPrice-Mars, Ebauches : . au-Prince: Imp. de TEtat, 1961). 28, 1915; FR, 1915, p. 475. 7. Lansing to Daniels, July américaine dHaiti: ses conséquences 8. Dantès Bellegarde, L'occupation Imp. Chéraquit, 1929), p. 5. morales et économique (Port-au-Prince: 1929, LXXII, Pt. 1, 910. 9. CR, 71st Cong, 2d Sess., to Wilson, Aug. 3, 1915. 10. SD 838.00/1275B, Lansing 3. Also SD 838.00/1226, R. B. Davis to 11. NYT, Aug. 14, 1915, p. Lansing, July 30, 1915. from July 28 to Aug, 4, 1915, W. B. Caperton, 12. Report of Operations July 18, 1916; NA, RADM, USN, to Secretary of the Navy (Operations), RG45, WA-7, Box 633. 13. Beach MS. . 10. SD 838.00/1275B, Lansing 3. Also SD 838.00/1226, R. B. Davis to 11. NYT, Aug. 14, 1915, p. Lansing, July 30, 1915. from July 28 to Aug, 4, 1915, W. B. Caperton, 12. Report of Operations July 18, 1916; NA, RADM, USN, to Secretary of the Navy (Operations), RG45, WA-7, Box 633. 13. Beach MS. --- Page 279 --- NOTES TO PAGES 68-71 The White King of La Gonave 14. Faustin Wirkus and Taney Dudley, Co., 1931), p. 17. Wirkus, a private (New York: Garden City the Publishing time of the 1915 landings, was subsequently in the Marine Corps at became the white king of the promoted to sergeant and, in this capacity, island of La Gonave in Port-au-Prince Bay. 15. Ibid., pp. 28-29. of the Navy and Commander in Chief, Aug. 16. Caperton to Secretary 19, 1915; Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 335. Daniels MSS, Container No. 12, 17. Daniels to Wilson, Aug. 2, 1915; Correspondence Daniels to Wilson, 1911-23. Haiti, Account of the Red Cross Relief Work in Port-au-Prince, 18. "An 30, 1916, by P. A. Surgeon H. A. May, USN; January to April, 1916," Apr. NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 633. Marine Tells It to You (New York: J. H. 19. Frederick M. Wise, A Sears & Co., 1929), p. 134. SC, USN), "Some Haitian Recollec20. Fred E. McMillen (CAPT, LXII, No. 398 (April, 1936), tions," U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, 522-36. 21. Wise, p. 135. to Wilson, Aug. 3, 1915. SD 838.00/1418, 22. SD 838.00/1275B, Lansing Wilson to Lansing, Aug, 4, 1915. Allen White, Feb. 18, 1930; Daniels MSS. 23. See Daniels to William dictated instructions that were Daniels states that Wilson personally Admiral Caperton on Aug. 7, 1915, cabled by the Navy Department to inform the Haitians that the United in which Caperton was ordered to Haiti only until a firm and stable States intended to retain troops in government was established. 9, 1915; FR: The Lansing Papers, 191424. Lansing to Wilson, Aug, 1920, II, 524. in Haiti," by Edward L. Beach, CAPT, 25. See "Admiral Caperton submitted to the Historical Section, USN, referred to herein as Beach MS, 1920, but refused publication by Office of Naval Intelligence on Jan. 13, matters which it was not "as containing political the Navy Department chief of staff and undertook desirable to publish." Beach was Caperton's ashore during the months followall negotiations with Haitian politicians constant communication with "X," ing the intervention. Beach was in J. N. Leger, whose advice was Haitian politician, probably a prominent Reference to "X"s advice on preventing highly valued by the Americans. undated memorandum in the election of Bobo is found in a separate, Box 632. See also Caperton to Beach's handwriting; NA, RG45, WA-7, Daniels, Aug. 2, 1915; FR, 1915, pp. 477-78. ashore during the months followall negotiations with Haitian politicians constant communication with "X," ing the intervention. Beach was in J. N. Leger, whose advice was Haitian politician, probably a prominent Reference to "X"s advice on preventing highly valued by the Americans. undated memorandum in the election of Bobo is found in a separate, Box 632. See also Caperton to Beach's handwriting; NA, RG45, WA-7, Daniels, Aug. 2, 1915; FR, 1915, pp. 477-78. --- Page 280 --- 26. Beach MS, pp. 98, NOTES TO PAGES 71-75 27. Ibid., p. 129, After 140-44. by the Americans, Bobo having been barred from the as a medical went to Cuba, where he Haitian G. ence of the Seventh missionary; A. Roberts, president worked for presidency four years SD 838.51/1105. Day Adventists, to President of the Jamaica Confer28. SD 838.00/1182, Harding, June 6, 1921, 29. NYT, July 29, 1915, Livingston to Bryan, May 1, 1915. Bryan, Apr. 6, 1915, p. 4, SD 838.0/1156, 30. Caperton to Daniels, Bail-Blanchard to RG45, WA-7, Box 636. Also Report SD of Operations, 3, 1915. 838.00/1275B, Aug. 13-19, 1915; NA, 31. Beach MS, Lansing to Wilson, Aug. 32. Undated pp. 122, 133-34. NA, RG45, WA-7, memorandum Box in Beach 33. Beach 632. handwriting, ca. Aug. 15, 1915; Box 635. The memorandum, United undated, ca, Aug. 15, Mole at this point, States was no longer interested 1915; NA, RG45, WA-7, 34. See in acquiring the Vanderlip "Memorandum re. Haitien president of Papers, National Columbia Univ., Haiti Situation," file. At this August, 1915; Frank A. and the National City Bank, which controlled time Vanderlip was 85. Beach Railway in Haiti, the Banque Nationale 36. Beach memorandum, conference Aug. 10, 1915; NA, 37. Ibid. with Bobo, Aug. 8, 1915, RC45, ibid. WA-7, Box 635, 38. Daniels to Caperton, Daniels to William Allen Aug. 10, 1915; Senate 39. Lansing to Wilson, White, Feb. 18, 1930; Daniels Hearings, MSS. 1922, p. 315. 1920, II, 526. Aug. 13, 1915; FR: The 40. Josephus Daniels, Lansing Papers, 1914CCIII, No. 2 (July 12, "The Problem of Haiti," 1933; Roosevelt MSS, 1930), 32 ff. Daniels to F. Saturday D. Evening Post, 41, Daniels to W. A. Container OF237. Roosevelt, July 15, 42. Beach memorandum, White, Feb. 18, 1930; Daniels MSS, interview with Harry R. Aug, 1915; NA, RG45, WA-7, Container Box 642. Sugar Co. from 1916 to 1918, Long, comptroller of the 635. Also 43. Censorship Apr. 22, 1967. Haitian-American p. 70. Promulgation of Sept, 3, 1915; Senate 44. Davis to Lansing, Hearings, 1922, 45. Lansing to Wilson, Sept, 3, 1915; FR, 1915, p. 442, 1920, II, 528-27, Aug. 13, 1915; FR: The Lansing to Davis, Aug. 12, 1915; Lansing Papers, 1914 FR, 1915, pp. 431-33. , 1967. Haitian-American p. 70. Promulgation of Sept, 3, 1915; Senate 44. Davis to Lansing, Hearings, 1922, 45. Lansing to Wilson, Sept, 3, 1915; FR, 1915, p. 442, 1920, II, 528-27, Aug. 13, 1915; FR: The Lansing to Davis, Aug. 12, 1915; Lansing Papers, 1914 FR, 1915, pp. 431-33. --- Page 281 --- NOTES TO PAGES 76-79 Hearto E. H. Durell, CAPT, USN, Aug. 25, 1915; Senate 46. Caperton the commander of United States forces ings, 1922, pp. 341-43. Durell was at Cap Haîtien. 47. Beach MS, p. 184. Dartiguenave et les américains (Port48. B. Danache, Le Président 46-47. Danache was Dartiguenave's au-Prince: Imp. de lEtat, 1950), pp. Senate Hearings, 1922, cabinet secretary. See also Caperton testimony, p. 397. Sept. 29, 1915; FR, 1915, pp. 524-25. 49. R. B. Davis to Lansing, Hearings, 1922, p. 401. Caperton to 50. Caperton testimony, Senate for Nov. 18, 1915, dated Nov. 20, 1915; NA, Daniels, Report of Operations RG45, WA-7, Box 637. F. L. Polk to Davis, Sept. 27 and Oct. 2, 51. Acting Secretary of State 1915; FR, 1915, pp. 524-26. Dec. 31, 1915; Senate Hearings, 1922, pp. 52. Daniels to Caperton, 405-7. Lansing to American Legation, Port-au-Prince, 53. SD 838.51/408a, Aug. 18, 1915. Senate Hearings, 1922, pp. 405-7. 54. Caperton testimony, 16, 1915, is reprinted in FR, 1916, pp. 55. The treaty, signed Sept. 328-32. "Intervention in Haiti," Division of Latin Amer56. SD 838.00/2484, unsigned, Feb. 11, 1927. ican Affairs memorandum, 57. Danache, p. 45. Operations, June 3, 1916; NA, RG45, 58. Beach to Chief of Naval WA-7, Box 632. 59. NYT, Oct. 6, 1920, p. 2. Headquarters Naval Landing 60. "Order No. 1" of Aug. 10, 1915, 634. Force, Cap Haitien; NA, RG45, WA-7, with Box A. T. Ruan, May 8, 1921, Con61. Conversation of H. F. Bryan Service Squadron (H. F. Bryan) fdential Report, Commander Special 10, 1921; NA, RG80, Box 135, File to Chief of Naval Operations, May No. 238-8. COL, USMC, May 15 and July 1, 1916; 62. Waller to John A. Lejeune, Lejeune MSS, Container 4. MARCORPS HQ Haiti MSS, Box 63. Waller to Butler, July 7, 1916; Marines' Role in the U.S. Occupation 25, quoted in John C. Chapin, "The M.A. thesis, George Washington Univ. of Haiti: 1915-1922," unpublished (1967), p. 44. Aug. 26 and Oct. 13, 1915; Lejeune MSS, Con64. Waller to Lejeune, tainer 4. to John A. Lejeune, Lejeune MSS, Container 4. MARCORPS HQ Haiti MSS, Box 63. Waller to Butler, July 7, 1916; Marines' Role in the U.S. Occupation 25, quoted in John C. Chapin, "The M.A. thesis, George Washington Univ. of Haiti: 1915-1922," unpublished (1967), p. 44. Aug. 26 and Oct. 13, 1915; Lejeune MSS, Con64. Waller to Lejeune, tainer 4. --- Page 282 --- NOTES TO PAGES 79-87 18 and 26, 1915, and July 1, 1916; ibid. 65. Waller to Lejeune, Aug. 66. Danache, pp. 53-54. 1, 1916; Lejeune MSS, Container 4. 67. Waller to Lejeune, July July 15, 1916; Smedley Darlington 68. Butler to Thomas S. Butler, Butler Papers, MARCORPS BRIG MUS. GEN, USMC; Senate Hearings, 1922, 69. Testimony of Butler, p. 517. 13, 1916; Lejeune MSS, Container 4. 70. Butler to Lejeune, July 1916; ibid. Waller to H. S. Knapp, 71. Butler to Lejeune, Aug. 18, of Santo Domingo and Military RADM, USN, U.S. Military Governor Haiti, June 23, 1917; NA, RG45, WA-7, Representative of the U.S. in Box 632. 162-63. 72. Cumberland MSS, pp. CHAPTER 5 memorandum fragment by W. B. Caperton, RADM, USN, 1. Undated NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 635. ca. Aug. 1915; Caperton to Secretary of the Navy (Oper2. Report for Nov. 20, 1915, Intelligence Register No. 4326E; ations), Dec. 7, 1915, Office of Naval NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 634. to E. H. Durell, CAPT, USN, Sept. 28, 3. Caperton personal letter 1915; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 631. Nov. 20, 1915; FR, 1915, pp. 486, 4, Daniels to Caperton, Sept. 5 and 1915; Senate Hearings, 1922, 493. Also Daniels to Caperton, Nov. 19, p. 398. 399, 451. For the Butler version of the 5. Senate Hearings, 1922, pp. Thomas, Old Gimlet Eye: The Adattack on Fort Rivière, see Lowell to Lowell Thomas (New York: ventures of Smedley D. Butler as Told Farrar & Rinehart, 1933), pp. 201-8. USMC, quoted in unidentified news6. Chandler Campbell, LT COL, York Public Library, Schomburg paper clipping, Apr. 29, 1931; Vol. New III. See also NYT, Apr. 26, 1931, p. 26. Collection, Scrapbook "Haiti," 7. Thomas, Old Gimlet Eye, p. 195. letter to E. H. Durell, CAPT, 8. Eli K. Cole, COL, USMC, personal WA-7, Box 633. USN, Oct. 27, 1915; NA, RG45, 1922, p. 514. 9. Butler testimony, Senate Hearings, d'Haiti: 1915-1934 (Annapolis: U.S. 10. James H. McCrocklin, Garde 187. This work is largely taken from Naval Institute, 1956), pp. 92, 145, Franklin A. Hart, MAJ, USMC, a 1934 official Marine Corps history MSS. by See NYT, Mar. 10, 1969, p. 34. located in MARCORPS HQ Haiti 1915; NA, RG45, 1922, p. 514. 9. Butler testimony, Senate Hearings, d'Haiti: 1915-1934 (Annapolis: U.S. 10. James H. McCrocklin, Garde 187. This work is largely taken from Naval Institute, 1956), pp. 92, 145, Franklin A. Hart, MAJ, USMC, a 1934 official Marine Corps history MSS. by See NYT, Mar. 10, 1969, p. 34. located in MARCORPS HQ Haiti --- Page 283 --- NOTES TO PAGES 87-92 5 Journal Maurice De Young, "Class Parameters in Haitian Society," 11. Inter-American Studies, I (1959), 449-58. NA, of LT COL, USMC to Lansing, Dec. 12, 1918; 12. A. S. Williams, Office, General CorrespondRG127, Records of Adjutant and Inspector's ence 1913-1932, Box 81. GEN, USMC, to Francis White, 18. SD 838.105/251, Neville, MAJ Aug. 10, 1922. to Secretary of the Navy, Dec. 2, 1918; 14. Commandant Marine Corps Office, General Correspondence NA, RG127, Adjutant and Inspector's L913-32, File No. 1375-20. Daniels: 1913Daniels, The Cabinet Diaries of Josephus 15. Josephus Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1963), 1921, ed. E. David Cronon (Lincoln: p. 332. July 13, 1916; Lejeune MSS, Container 4. 16. Butler to Lejeune, Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 516. 17. Butler testimony, CXXXVI, No. 3524 (Jan. 18, 1933), 18. Butler quoted in the Nation, The Memoirs of General A. A. 49. A. A. Vandegrift, Once a Marine: (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., Vandegrift, as told to Robert B. Asprey commandant of the Marine Corps 1964), p. 49. General Vandegrift, a adjutant in Haiti. during World War II, served as Butler's Commander (Cole), July 3, 1917; 19. Daily Diary Report, Brigade NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632. York: Minton, Balch & Co., 20. John H. Craige, Black Bagdad (New 1933), p. 39. The White King of La Gonave. 21. Wirkus and Dudley, Santo Domingo and Haiti, p. 68. 22. Inman, Through Haiti," World's Work, XXXIV, No. 1 23. George Marvin, "Healthy (May, 1917), 33-51. Plans for Employment of Naval Forces 24. "D' Confidential Tentative 32 ca. July, 1914; NA, RG45, Stationed in Haitien Fonts-Port-au-PHince," WA-7, Box 631. to Wilson, Aug, 3, 1915. McMillen, 25. SD 838.00/1275B, Lansing LXII, No. 398, 524. U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, B. May 26, 1916. New York 26. SD 838.00/1403, Waller to J. Wright, Herald, Apr. 29, 1916. in the Times (San Juan, 27. Undated report on article Records appearing of the Bureau of Insular AfPuerto Rico), June 6, 1916; NA, fairs, RG350, File No. 22843-9. Feb. 9 and Mar. 28, 1917; NA, RG45, 28. Daily Diary Reports (Cole), WA-7, Box 632. May 26, 1916. New York 26. SD 838.00/1403, Waller to J. Wright, Herald, Apr. 29, 1916. in the Times (San Juan, 27. Undated report on article Records appearing of the Bureau of Insular AfPuerto Rico), June 6, 1916; NA, fairs, RG350, File No. 22843-9. Feb. 9 and Mar. 28, 1917; NA, RG45, 28. Daily Diary Reports (Cole), WA-7, Box 632. --- Page 284 --- NOTES TO PAGES 92-96 RADM, USN, Military Gov29. Cole personal letter to H. S. Knapp, RG45, WA-7, Box 632. SD ernor of Santo Domingo, Apr. 8, 1917; NA, Port-au-Prince, to 838.00/1453, Marston, Office of Civil Administrator, Cole, Apr. 16, 1917. reports in Confidential File, MAR30. See, for example, intelligence CORPS HQ Haiti MSS, Box 23. from L. Cappel, German 31. English translation of German message Chancellor, Berlin, to the German Imperial minister at Port-au-Prince, dateline Mar. 31, 1917, intercepted and sent via M. Bieler, The Hague, the British Ambassador, June 9, 1917; NA, to the State Department by RG45, WA-7, Box 632. to Office of Naval Intelligence, 32. Brigade Commander (Russell) Brigade Commander (Russell), Feb. 5, 1918; ibid. Daily Diary Reports, Dec. 25 and 28, 1917; ibid. BRIG GEN, USMC, June 22, 1917; 33. Butler to John A. Lejeune, MARCORPS MUS. Smedley Darlington Butler Papers, 52-53. 34. Vandegrift, Once A Marine, pp. of Santo Domingo, Apr. 8 35. Cole to Knapp, Military Governor WA-7, Box 632. and 13 and July 24, 1917; NA, RG45, LXII, No. 398, 525. 36. McMillen, U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, 31, 1917, and Jan. 29, 1918; 37. Butler to John A. McIlhenny, MARCORPS Dec. MUS. Smedley Darlington Butler Papers, Commander (Cole), May 12, 1917; 38. Daily Diary Report, Brigade NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632. of July 24, 1918; ibid., Box 634. 39. Dartiguenave Decree Commander, Mar. 30, July 20, 40. Daily Diary Reports, Brigade 1918; ibid., Box 632. The American Aug. 21, and Dec. 22, 1917, Jan. 31, 12 Haitian frms out of a total of blacklists for World War I included Journal of Business, XXI, No. 2 1,019 for all of Latin America; Rippy, (April, 1948), 65. Occupied Haiti (New York: Writers Pub41. Emily G. Balch (ed.), lishing Co., 1927), 55. Concerning the Replacing of 42. SD 838.105/122, "Memorandum Guard," by John H. of Haiti by a Legation the Present Occupation Russell, ca. March, 1919. of the Navy (Operations), July 43. Brigade Commander to Secretary Records, Haiti, Filecase 70. 16, 1919; NA, RG127, Miscellaneous Commander (Russell), Jan. 23 and 44. Daily Diary Reports, Brigade Box 632. Feb. 21, 1920; NA, RG45, WA-7, Commander to Marine Corps Head45. Message draft, Brigade . SD 838.105/122, "Memorandum Guard," by John H. of Haiti by a Legation the Present Occupation Russell, ca. March, 1919. of the Navy (Operations), July 43. Brigade Commander to Secretary Records, Haiti, Filecase 70. 16, 1919; NA, RG127, Miscellaneous Commander (Russell), Jan. 23 and 44. Daily Diary Reports, Brigade Box 632. Feb. 21, 1920; NA, RG45, WA-7, Commander to Marine Corps Head45. Message draft, Brigade --- Page 285 --- NOTES TO PAGES 96-101 quarters, December, 1920; NA, RG127, Filecase 70. Also copies of the Miscellaneous Records, Haiti, telligence reports on Germans, ibid. deportation agreements, along with in46. Marine Corps ibid. Headquarters to Brigade Commander, Dec. 1920; 47. SD 838.00/2382, S. W. Morgan to 48. SD 838.011/69, "The New Haitian Kellogg, May 5, 1927. Mayer, Jan. 3, 1921. Constitution of 1918," by F. 49. For Butler's behind-the-scenes of the Dartiguenave account of American government and the manipulation see Thomas, Old Gimlet Eye, pp. 214-16. dissolution of the Assembly, 50. SD 838.011/23, 51. SD 838.00/1675a, Bailly-Blanchard to Lansing, June 21, 1917. 52. Daily Diary Lansing to Wilson, June 23, 1917. NA, RG45, WA-7, Report, Box 632. Brigade Commander (Cole), June 21, 1917; 53. SD 838.011/69, "The New Haitian Jan. 3, 1921. Constitution of 1918," by Mayer, 54. SD 838.011/61, Bailly-Blanchard 55. Testimony of Alexander S. to Lansing, June 18, 1918. Hearings, 1922, pp. 566-68. SD Williams, LT COL, USMC; Senate May 29, 1918, enclosing Commandant 838.011/57, Bailly-Blanchard to Lansing, Letter of May 20, 1918. Gendarmerie d'Haiti Circular 56. Brigade Commander June 17, 1918; NA, RG45, (Russell) to Chief of Naval 57. WA-7, Box 632. Operations, Josephus Daniels Daniels to Roosevelt, July 15, 1933, quoted in D. in Mexico (Madison: Univ. David Cronon, p. 68. At this time Daniels was Roosevelt's of Wisconsin Press, 1960), 58. For a copy of the ambassador to Mexico. 59. SD 838.154/4, constitution, see FR, 1918, pp. 487-502. closing report on corvée Bailly-Blanchard submitted to Lansing, Nov. 16, 1918, en60. Butler to by Williams, Nov. 9, 1918. Franklin D. Roosevelt: Roosevelt, The Dec. 28, 1917, quoted in Frank Freidel, 1952), 282n. Apprenticeship (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 61. Knapp to Daniels, Nov. 2, 1920; NA, 62. Testimony of A. S. Williams, RG45, WA-7, Box 632. 1918-19; Senate Hearings, 1922, commandant of the Gendarmerie, Evans; ibid., pp. 164-67. Also SD pp. 555-56. Testimony of Rev. L. Ton Bishop of North Haiti, to Lansing, 838.00/1551, Monsignor F. Kersuzan, 63. Proclamation of Sept. 17, 1918, Brigade Commander Aug. 22, 1918, quoted in Daily Diary (Little), Aug. 23, 1918; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box Report, 632. , commandant of the Gendarmerie, Evans; ibid., pp. 164-67. Also SD pp. 555-56. Testimony of Rev. L. Ton Bishop of North Haiti, to Lansing, 838.00/1551, Monsignor F. Kersuzan, 63. Proclamation of Sept. 17, 1918, Brigade Commander Aug. 22, 1918, quoted in Daily Diary (Little), Aug. 23, 1918; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box Report, 632. --- Page 286 --- NOTES TO PAGES 101-106 General Commandant, 64. John H. Russell, COL, USMC, to Major Office, General CorNov. 14, 1918; NA, RG127, Adjutant and Inspector's respondence, 1913-22, Box 243. (Lejeune) to Secretary of the Navy 65. Major General Commandant RG 80, File No. 5526-321. (Daniels), Nov. 1, 1920; NA, BRIG GEN, USMC; Senate Hear66. Testimony of Albertus W. Catlin, ings, 1922, pp. 649-69. Catlin, Feb. 15, 1919; ibid., pp. 654-55. Testi67. Report of Hooker to mony of Hooker; ibid., pp. 469-70. Commandant of the Gendarmerie, 68. Testimony of A. S. Williams, 1919; ibid., p. 598. British consul, Port-au-Prince, quoted in 69. Letter from Peralte to Commander (Catlin), June 25, 1919; NA, Daily Diary Report, Brigade Also Russell to Barnett, Oct. 17, 1919; Senate RG45, WA-7, Box 632. Hearings, 1922, p. 428. 70. Ibid., p. 1728. 1919; Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 428. 71. Russell to Barnett, Oct. 17, 309. 72. Wise, A Marine Tells It to You, p. MSS, Container 4. 73. Waller to Lejeune, Oct. 13, 1915; Lejeune 74. Heinl, Soldiers of the Sea, p. 242. 75. Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 451. 9. 76. Millett, The Politics of Intervention, p. of Haiti," Nation, CXI, No. 77. Herbert J. Seligmann, "The Conquest 180. Drake Scottman, "A Marine 2871 (July 10, 1920), 35-36. Franck, No. 2 (February, 1943), 22 ff. Remembers Haiti," Leatherneck, XXVI, 78. Senate Hearings, 1922, pp. 813-932. alleged to have of investigation of certain irregularities 79. "Report officers and enlisted men in the Republic of Haiti," been committed by USMC, Nov. 3, 1919; ibid., pp. 461-73. by T. C. Turner, MA], Nov. 1, 1920; NA, RG80, File No. 5528-321. 80. Lejeune to Daniels, 429. 81. Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 1930; Daniels MSS, Container 82. Daniels to W. A. White, Feb. 18, 642. USMC, Adjutant and Inspector of the 83. H. C. Haines, BRIG GEN, Commander, Port-au-Prince, Dec. 24, Marine Corps, to Russell, Brigade 1919; NA, RG80, File No. 5526-321:5. 84. Daniels, Cabinet Diaries, p. 553. NA, RG80, File No. 5526-321. 85. Lejeune to Daniels, Nov. 1, 1920; Senate Hearings, 1922, pp. 86. For the record of the Mayo court, see 1585-1668. A Marine Tells It to You, p. 334. 87. Wise, Commander, Port-au-Prince, Dec. 24, Marine Corps, to Russell, Brigade 1919; NA, RG80, File No. 5526-321:5. 84. Daniels, Cabinet Diaries, p. 553. NA, RG80, File No. 5526-321. 85. Lejeune to Daniels, Nov. 1, 1920; Senate Hearings, 1922, pp. 86. For the record of the Mayo court, see 1585-1668. A Marine Tells It to You, p. 334. 87. Wise, --- Page 287 --- NOTES TO PAGES 106-118 88. NYT, Oct. 14, 1920, p. 1. Senate Hearings, 1922, pp. 89. Barnett to Russell, Oct. 20, 1919; 1722-23. CHAPTER 6 scholar has stated that "Wilson gave only casual 1. One noted Wilson Arthur S. Link, Wilson, The attention to the task in Haiti after 1916"; Princeton Univ. Press, Struggle for Neutrality; 1914-1915 (Princeton: 1960), p. 538. (Cole) to Commander, Cruiser Force, 2. Expeditionary Commander 1916; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632. Atlantic Fleet (Knapp), Dec. 17, to Daniels, Dec. 20, 1916; Cruiser Force (Knapp) 3. Commander ibid. to Comander Cruiser Force (Knapp), 4. Chief of Naval Operations Jan. 11, 1917; ibid. of Roosevelt's visit, see Frank Freidel, 5. For a detailed account (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., Franklin D. Roosevelt: The Apprenticeship 1952), pp. 277-83. 15, 1933; Roosevelt MSS, OF 237. 6. Daniels to Roosevelt, July 7. Freidel, p. 283. and Santo Domingo, 1917," unpublished 8. Roosevelt, "Trip to Haiti Box 155. Armour to Roosevelt, July 7, travel diary; Roosevelt MSS, RG10, was financial adviser to the 1934; Roosevelt MSS, PPF1710. Mcilhenny from 1919 to 1922. Haitian government Feb. 17, 1917; Roosevelt MSS, 9. H. L. Roosevelt to F. D. Roosevelt, RG10, Box 145. Feb. 17 and Mar. 24, 1917. 10. H. L. Roosevelt to F. D. Roosevelt, 1917; ibid, Boxes 145, 155. H. L. Roosevelt to J. A. Mcllhenny, Mar. Feb. 4, 17, 1917; ibid., Box 145. 11. H. L. Roosevelt to F. D. Roosevelt, Mar. 24, 1917; ibid., Box 155. 12. H. L. Roosevelt to F. D. Roosevelt, 1919, quoted in Alfred B. 13. Louis Howe to F. D. Roosevelt, Jan. 16, Alfred A. Knopf, 1962), Rollins, Jr., Roosevelt and Howe (New York: p. 173. 11 and Oct. 14, 1922. Mcll14. F. D. Roosevelt to McIlhenny, Aug. Roosevelt MSS, Group 14. 13 and Oct. 18, 1922; henny to Roosevelt, July ibid. Also undated McIlhenny proposal, pp-, 1922; Roosevelt MSS, Group 14. 15. Roosevelt to McIlhenny, Oct. 14, ibid. to Roosevelt, July 13, 1922; 16. McIlhenny to A. T. Ruan, fnancial adviser to Haiti, 17. SD 838.51/578b, Lansing Dec. 20, 1916. McIlhenny, Aug. Roosevelt MSS, Group 14. 13 and Oct. 18, 1922; henny to Roosevelt, July ibid. Also undated McIlhenny proposal, pp-, 1922; Roosevelt MSS, Group 14. 15. Roosevelt to McIlhenny, Oct. 14, ibid. to Roosevelt, July 13, 1922; 16. McIlhenny to A. T. Ruan, fnancial adviser to Haiti, 17. SD 838.51/578b, Lansing Dec. 20, 1916. --- Page 288 --- NOTES TO PAGES 118-117 Commander (Cole), Feb. 27, 1917; 18. Daily Diary Report, Brigade NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632. Commander (Cole), Feb. 25, 1917; 19. Daily Diary Report, Brigade extension, see FR, 1917, pp. 807-8. ibid. For a copy of the treaty s Ladies Home Journal, 20. Woodrow Wilson, "The Mexican Question, XXXIII, No. 10 (October, 1916), 9. 21. NYT, Apr. 26, 1916, p. 11. 18 and 26, 1930; Daniels MSS, Con22. Daniels to W. A. White, Feb. Post, CCIII, No. 2, 321 ff. tainers 641, 642. Also Daniels, Saturday Evening Years Peace, 1910-1917 Daniels, The Wilson Era: of Also Josephus Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1944), p. 179. (Chapel of Foreign Affairs to Haitian Minister in France, 23. Haitian Minister Dantès Pour une Haiti Jan. 22, 1919; FR, 1919, II, 314. 1929), Bellegarde, II, 102-5. heureuse (Port-au-Prince: Imp. Chéraquit, Paris, to State Department, 2A. SD 838.00/1563, American Mission, Mar. 14, 1919. of State, Apr. 5, 1919; FR, 25. Bailly-Blanchard to Acting Secretary "Memorandum Concerning the 1919, II, 330-31. Also SD 838.105/122, of Haiti by a Legation Guard," by Replacing of the Present Occupation 1919. Also SD 838.00/1574, John H. Russell, COL, USMC, ca. March, to Lansing, Mar. 31, 1919. Acting Secretary of the Navy (Roosevelt) of State (Phillips) to Bailly26. SD 838.00/1569, Acting Secretary American Mission, Paris Blanchard, Mar. 22, 1919. SD 838.00/1568, (Lansing), to State Department, Mar. 23, 1919. Roosevelt MSS, RG10, 27. McIlhenny to Roosevelt, May 2, 1919; Box 127. SURGEON, USN, to H. S. Knapp, RADM, USN, 28. N. T. McLean, Box 632. Butler to John A. Lejeune, Aug. 7, 1917; NA, RG45, WA-7, Smedley Darlington Butler Papers, BRIG GEN, USMC, June 22, 1917; MARCORPS MUS. June 27 and Sept. 9, 1917; 29. Knapp to Chief of Naval Operations, of the Navy (Daniels), NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632. Knapp to Secretary Jan. 10, 1921; NA, RG80, File No. 5526-39:299:1. of the West Indies 30. Testimony of Richard E. Forrest, president Corporation; Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 757. Haiti and the United States, p. 225. 31. Montague, May 2, 1919, and Roosevelt to McIlhenny, 32. McIlhenny to Roosevelt, RG10, Box 127. May 23, 1919; Roosevelt MSS, Senate Hearings, 1922, pp. 115, 33. Testimony of Roger L. Farnham; 120. 39:299:1. of the West Indies 30. Testimony of Richard E. Forrest, president Corporation; Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 757. Haiti and the United States, p. 225. 31. Montague, May 2, 1919, and Roosevelt to McIlhenny, 32. McIlhenny to Roosevelt, RG10, Box 127. May 23, 1919; Roosevelt MSS, Senate Hearings, 1922, pp. 115, 33. Testimony of Roger L. Farnham; 120. --- Page 289 --- NOTES TO PAGES 118-120 memorandum, March, 1918. SD 838.00/ 34. SD 838.51/911, F. Mayer 1666, Munro memorandum, Aug. 11, 1920. Haitian policies by Secre35. Defense of the Wilson administration's 21, 1920, p. 16. tary of State Bainbridge Colby, NYT, Sept. 36. NYT, Aug, 19, 1920, p. 15. in NYT, Aug. 29, 1920, Aug. 28, 1920, quoted 37. Harding speech, 14. pt. II, p. 12. NYT, Sept. 18, 1920, p. This Way; The Autobiography of 38. James Weldon Johnson, York: Along Viking Press, 1933), 358-60. James Weldon Johnson (New the release of the inside story explaining 39. For an undocumented of the election campaign, see John H. Barnett letter during the heat York: Minton, Balch & Co., 1934), pp. Craige, Cannibal Cousins (New Barnett, MAJ GEN, USMC; Senate 84-87. See also testimony of George Hearings, 1922, pp. 425-34. Tribune (New York), Eagle (Brook40. Public Ledger (Philadelphia), Haitian Scandal," Literary Digest, LXVII, lyn) quoted in "Probing the No. 5 (Oct. 30, 1920), 16-17. 17. Franck blamed President Wilson and 41. NYT, Oct. 15, 1920, p. take steps to change the prevailing low Secretary Daniels for failing to on the ethos of value placed on Haitian lives. For a different perspective Knights of the Cockpit: marine air operations, see Irwin R. Franklyn, York: Dial Press, A Romantic Epic of the Flying Marines in Haiti (New 1931). to Colby, Sept. 1, 1920, and Colby to 42. SD 838.51/954, Mcllhenny World's Work, XXXIV, No. 1 Mcllhenny, Sept. 4, 1920. See also Marvin, companion of Franklin (May, 1917), 33-51. Marvin had been Roosevelt's a traveling 1917 tour of Haiti, and D. Roosevelt and McIlhenny during unemployed in Haiti. in was currently "The Press and American Intervention 43. John W. Blassingame, 1904-1920," Caribbean Studies, IX, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, No. 2 (July, 1969), 27-43. No. 2871, 35-36. James Weldon Johnson, 44. Seligmann, Nation, CXI, CXI, Nos. 2878, 2879, 2880, and 2882 "Self-Determining Haiti," Nation, (Aug. 28 through Sept. 25, 1920), 4 parts. IX, No. 2, 27-43. 45. Blassingame, Caribbean Studies, 345-58. Georges Sylvain, Dix 46. Johnson, Along This Way . 5 Editions années de lutte pour la liberté: 1915-1925 98-99. (Port-au-Prince: Also Danache, Le PrésiHenri Deschamps, 195-P), I, 4-6, 76-78, 97-102. dent Dartiguenave et les américains, pp. quoted in Sylvain, Dix an47. Gruening to Sylvain, Sept., 1921, nées : ,I, 125-28. Georges Sylvain, Dix 46. Johnson, Along This Way . 5 Editions années de lutte pour la liberté: 1915-1925 98-99. (Port-au-Prince: Also Danache, Le PrésiHenri Deschamps, 195-P), I, 4-6, 76-78, 97-102. dent Dartiguenave et les américains, pp. quoted in Sylvain, Dix an47. Gruening to Sylvain, Sept., 1921, nées : ,I, 125-28. --- Page 290 --- 48. Oswald NOTES TO PAGES 121-125 Garrison Villard, Editor (New York: Harcourt, Brace Fighting Years; Memoirs of a LAberal of the Union Patriotique & Co., 1939), pp. 478-86. Memoir 1921), 751-75. reprinted in Nation, CXII, No. 2916 (May 25, 49. Ibid., No. 2920 (June 22, 1921), 861. For in the American press, which were comments on the memoir see "Haiti Charges Us with generally favorable to the Occupation, (June 18, 1921), 12. Misrule," Literary Digest, LXIX, No, 12 50. Interview with Ernest Angell, counsel Patriotique, the Haiti-Santo Domingo representing the Union NAACP before the Senate Inquiry; New Independence York Society, and the 51. Secret alliance between Ch. City, July 28, 1970. Bobo, represented by Marc Raphael Emmanual Kernizan and Rosalvo Public Library, Special Collections Séjour, Paris, Jan. 8, 1921; Boston was an elaborate alliance (Haiti), Rare Book Department, This with diplomatic posts providing for mutual support for the dential going to the losers along with presidency, succession. guarantee of presi52. For example, intelligence Haitien, 1921; NA, RG127, Miscellaneous reports on 65 important Haitians in Cap 53. My interview with Senator Ernest Records (Haiti), Filecase 70. Aug. 4, 1967. Gruening, Washington, D.C., 54. Senate Report No. 794, 67th 67th Cong., 4th Sess., 1923, LXIV, Cong., Pt. 2d Sess., 1922, reprinted in CR, 55. Medill McCormick, "Our 2, 1121-31. (Dec. 1, 1920), 615-16, Failure in Haiti," Nation, CXI, No. 2891 56. Senate Report No. 794. 57. Senate Hearings, 1922, pp. 58. Senate Report No. 794. 858-59, 1694-95. 59. SD 838.00/1825%, McCormick to 60. Hughes to Denby, Oct. 18, 1921; Hughes, Dec. 14, 1921. 61. Interview between John C. NA, RG80, File No. 5528-321:37. 1967; John C. Chapin, "The Marines' Chapin and Dana G, Munro, Feb. 15, Haiti: 1915-1922," unpublished Role in the U.S. Occupation of (1967), p. 103. M.A, thesis, George Washington Univ. 62. John H. Russell, "History of Haiti," MARCORPS MUS, MS File No. 4-50. unpublished MS (n.d.), 1; 63. SD 838.00/1842, Russell 64. SD 838.105/122, memorandum, Oct. 1, 1921. Present Occupation of Haiti "Memorandum by a Concerning the Replacing of the 1919. U.S., Department of State, Legation Guard," by Russell, ca. March, sioner at Port-au-Prince, Report of the American High CommisHaiti, 1925. (Referred to hereafter as Annual , MS File No. 4-50. unpublished MS (n.d.), 1; 63. SD 838.00/1842, Russell 64. SD 838.105/122, memorandum, Oct. 1, 1921. Present Occupation of Haiti "Memorandum by a Concerning the Replacing of the 1919. U.S., Department of State, Legation Guard," by Russell, ca. March, sioner at Port-au-Prince, Report of the American High CommisHaiti, 1925. (Referred to hereafter as Annual --- Page 291 --- NOTES TO PAGES 125-128 "Memorandum on the JudiReport, High Commissioner, various years.) 17, 1920; NA, RG80, Box 135, File cial System of Haiti," by Russell, Mar. No. 238-1. Paul Morand, Hiver caraibe (Paris: Ernest 65. Danache, pp. 125-26. W. B. Seabrook, The Magic Island (New Flammarion, ed., 1929), 102-3. 148. York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1929), p. comptroller of the Haitian66. My interview with Harry R. Long, of the West American Sugar Co. from 1916 to 1918 and vice-president Somerville, N.J., Port-au-Prince, from 1918 to 1920; Indies Trading Co., other members of the board favored admitting Apr. 22, 1967. Long and "Journal of W. Cameron Forbes," s9 Second the Swiss. W. Cameron Forbes, journal, pp. 32, 37; LC, W. Cameron Series, III, 1930-34, unpublished Forbes Papers. see Hughes to Russell, Feb. 11, 67. For Russell's formal instructions, 1922; FR, 1922, II, 461-66. "Our Haitian Problem," Foreign Affairs, 68. Arthur C. Millspaugh, VII, No. 4 (July, 1929), 556-70. Nov. 15, 1924, and J. C. Grew 69. SD 883.01/42, Russell to Hughes, code for Egypt.) Dec. 19, 1924. (883 is the decimal to Russell, 70. Ibid. Modern Egypt (London: Macmillan & Co., 71. The Earl of Cromer, 1911), p. 4. No. 2," Russell to treaty officials, Brigade Com72. "Memorandum and Commandant of the Gendarmerie, mander, Chargé d'Affaires, Records of the Bureau of Insular Affairs, RG350, Mar. 24, 1922; NA, Memorandum No. 8," Russell to General ReFile No. 26778. "Instruction ibid. SD 838.51/1555, Russell to Hughes, ceiver of Customs, Apr. 21, 1923; Munro to Francis White, Apr. 26, 1924. Apr. 9, 1923. SD 838.105/300, Apr. 28, 1927. SD 838.105/317, Also SD 838.105/319, Russell to Kellogg, W. R. Scott to W. C. Russell to Kellogg, Apr. 26, 1927. SD 838.51A/190, S. de la Rue to W. R. Castle, Thurston, Feb. 3, 1931. SD 838.51A/154, May 8, 1929. Affairs, VII, No. 4, 557-58. For information 73. Millspaugh, Foreign Scott to Thurston, Feb. dismissal, see SD 838.51A/190, on Millspaugh's Millspaugh to Stimson, Jan. 31, 1931. 3, 1931, and SD 838.51A/189, Mar. 14, 1927; Lejeune MSS, 74. J.S. Turrill, COL, USMC, to Lejeune, Container 4. former Cabinet secretary implies that Dartiguenave his 75. Dartiguenave's and selected Borno as voluntarily declined reelection mind and personally decided to run, but was prevented successor, then changed his 135-48. from doing sO by Russell; Danache, pp. , Jan. 31, 1931. 3, 1931, and SD 838.51A/189, Mar. 14, 1927; Lejeune MSS, 74. J.S. Turrill, COL, USMC, to Lejeune, Container 4. former Cabinet secretary implies that Dartiguenave his 75. Dartiguenave's and selected Borno as voluntarily declined reelection mind and personally decided to run, but was prevented successor, then changed his 135-48. from doing sO by Russell; Danache, pp. --- Page 292 --- NOTES TO PAGES 128-180 quotations of his poetry, 76. For a laudatory description of Borno, plus de notre démocratie (Paris: Damase, Les mensonges see Pierre-Louis Universitaires de France, 1933). Imp. des Presses BRIG GEN, USMC, to John A. Lejeune, 77. Littleton W. T. Waller, MSS, Container 4. SD 838.00/ BRIG GEN, USMC, June 26, 1916; Lejeune 1916. Daily Diary Report, Brigade 1424, Stabler memorandum, Nov. 22, NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632. Commander (Russell), Nov. 23, 1918; K. Streit, "Parting of the Ways 78. References to Mussolini in Clarence and John H. Craige, Faces Us in Haiti," > NYT, Mar. 18, 1928, Pt. III, p. 6, LXVI (1934), CAPT, USMC, "Haitian Vignettes, National "Problems Geographic, of Interest to Haiti 435-85. Borno quotes are in Louis Borno, the Pan American Union, LX, No. 9 and the United States," Bulletin Circular of of Oct. 8, 1925, is quoted in Ray- (Sept., 1926), 845-51. Borno Occupation of Haiti," Foreign Policy mond Leslie Buell, "The American V, No. 15 (Oct. 2, 1929), 387. Annual Association Information Service, 4-6. Report, High Commissioner, 1928, pp. 79. Millspaugh, chap. iv. 165-69. See also Vilfort Beauvoir, Le 80. Cumberland MSS, pp. des Etats-Unis d'Amérique sur la contrôle financier du Gouvernement Cadoret, 1930), for another inRépublique d'Haiti (Bordeaux: Imp. cident of Cumberland holding up pay checks. 81. Danache, p. 101. Concerning Replacing of the Pres82. SD 838.105/122, "Memorandum Guard," by Russell, ca. March, ent Occupation of Haiti by a Legation 1919. draft of Butler letter to J. Butler Wright, State Department, 83. Pencil Butler Papers, MARCORPS MUS. Oct. 13, 1916; Smedley Darlington May 2, 1919; Roosevelt MSS, RG10, 84. McIlhenny to Roosevelt, Box 127. Division of Latin American Affairs (Rowe), 85. McIlhenny to chief, July 21, 1920; FR, 1920, II, 762-67. memorandum, Jan. 19, 1918. 86. SD 838.516/117, Mayer to Lansing, Feb. 6, 1918. 87. SD 838.516/105, Bailly-Blanchard d'Haiti," memorandum sub88. "Banque Nationale de la République National City Bank on Feb. 12, 1930; mitted to Henry P. Fletcher by Forbes Commission Papers, Box 1. Division of Latin Ameri89. SD 838.516/180, Minutes of Conference, A. Mcllhenny. Testimony of Mar. 9, 1922, statement by J. can Affairs, American Development Co. of Haiti; H. M. Pilkington, vice-president, Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 796. anchard d'Haiti," memorandum sub88. "Banque Nationale de la République National City Bank on Feb. 12, 1930; mitted to Henry P. Fletcher by Forbes Commission Papers, Box 1. Division of Latin Ameri89. SD 838.516/180, Minutes of Conference, A. Mcllhenny. Testimony of Mar. 9, 1922, statement by J. can Affairs, American Development Co. of Haiti; H. M. Pilkington, vice-president, Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 796. --- Page 293 --- NOTES TO PAGES 130-184 to Colby, July 30, 1920, and Bailly90. Haitian chargé (Blanchet) 5, 1920; FR, 1920, II, 767-71. Blanchard to Colby, Aug. Aug. 6 and 7, 1920; ibid., pp. 771-72. 91. Colby to Bailly-Blanchard, Situation in Haiti," by Munro, Aug. 11, SD 838.00/1666, "The Present 1920. Welles to Hughes, Mar. 8, 1922. 92. SD 838.51/1417, of Conference in Latin American Di93. SD 838.516/180, Minutes of State F. M. vision, Mar. 9, 1922, and Welles to Assistant Secretary Dearing, Mar. 14, 1922. Mar. 8, 1922. For a detailed 94. SD 838.516/181, Munro to Welles, Marc E. Malval, La politique comparison of the two charters, see d'Haiti depuis 1910 (Paris: Unifinancière extérieure de la République versité de Paris, 1932), pp. 75-88. Dec. 3, 1916. 95. SD 838.51/578%, Wilson to Lansing, American Affairs memorandum 96. SD 838.51/628, Division of Latin of Farnham visit, May 24, 1917. July 1, 1921, and Mc97. SD 838.51/1126, Maumus to McIlhenny, Ilhenny to F. Mayer, July 26, 1921. American Affairs memorandum, 98. SD 838.51/1204, Division of Latin Oct. 21, 1920. Division of Latin American Affairs memorandum 99. SD 838.51/1262, Russell (?) to Hughes, April to Welles, Nov. 16, 1921. SD 838.51/1263, 26, 1922. Sept. 28, 1922; FR, 1922, II, 514. New York 100. Hughes to J. C. Dunn, Bulletin, Oct. 10, 1922. Journal of Commerce and Commercial Financial History of the Republic 101. See Sténio Vincent, Outline de of I'Etat, 1939), pp. 17-21. Malval, pp. of Haiti (Port-au-Prince: Imp. 99-101. Harding to Hughes, July 31, 1922. 838.51/1323, 102. SD 838.51/1336, 16, 1922. Frank McIntyre to Maumus, June Medill Feb. 21, 1924. Jo103. SD 838.00/2004, Hughes to McCormick, Record of Forty Years (Bosseph C. Grew, Turbulent Era; A Diplomatic 634. Charles Evans Hughes, Our ton: Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1952), I, The Stafford Little Relations to Nations of the Western Hemisphere: Univ. Press, 1928), p. 79. Lecture Series for 1928 (Princeton: Princeton H. Ferrell (eds.), The Talkative 104. Howard H. Quint and Robert of Calvin Coolidge President; The Of-the-Record Press Conferences 1964), p. 223. Collidge state- (Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press, ment of Mar. 13, 1925, ibid., p. 232. LXII, Pt. 9, 8974. 105. CR, 67th Cong, 2d Sess., 1922, 8), p. 79. Lecture Series for 1928 (Princeton: Princeton H. Ferrell (eds.), The Talkative 104. Howard H. Quint and Robert of Calvin Coolidge President; The Of-the-Record Press Conferences 1964), p. 223. Collidge state- (Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press, ment of Mar. 13, 1925, ibid., p. 232. LXII, Pt. 9, 8974. 105. CR, 67th Cong, 2d Sess., 1922, --- Page 294 --- NOTES TO PAGES 136-139 CHAPTER 7 Blancs et noirs (Paris: E. Flammarion, ed., 1915), 1. Paul Reboux, XXXIV, No. 1, 47. Marvin visited Haiti p. 98. Marvin, World's Work, intervention and observed that by 1917 before and after the American racial and superiority were no the previous Haitian attitudes of equality more subdued. longer in evidence and that the people were 2. Thomas, Old Gimlet Eye, p. 231. 3. Ibid. L. Foster, Combing the Caribbees (New 4. See, for instance, Harry 255. Robert Herrick article in the York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1929), p. Magic Island, pp. 147-48, 156; New York World, Apr. 10, 1927; Seabrook, the East (Indianapolis: BobbsFrazier Hunt, The Rising Temper of "A Jim-Crow Situation in Haiti," Merrill Co., 1922), p. 192; E. W. Hutter, Ernest H. Gruening, "Haiti UnPlain Talk (March, 1929), pp. 349-56; (April, 1922), pp. 836-45. der American Occupation," Century and manager, Ameri5. Testimony of H. M. Pilkington, vice-president Hearings, 1922, p. 794. Co. of Haiti; Senate can Development An American Dilemma (New York: 6. Gunnar Myrdal, and others, in 1944. McCraw-Hill Book Co., 1964), I, 60. Originally published 7. Foster, p. 255. 553. Harold N. Denny, "Proud 8. Daniels, Cabinet Diaries . NYT, s p. Oct. 9, 1932, Pt. VI, p. 8. Haiti Demands Her Old Freedom," 118. Roaming Through the West Indies, p. 9. Franck, 836-45. Also NYT, Dec. 22, 10. Gruening, Century (April, 1922), pp. Senate Hearings, 1922, 1929, p. 20. Also Testimony of Ernest Gruening, p. 1220. Also Seabrook, p. 134. No. 1, 51. 11. Marvin, World's Work, XXXIV, Colorful Black Republic," Independent, 12. Harry L. Foster, "That 111-13. Also Danache, Le Président CXXI, No. 4079 (Aug. 4, 1928), Dartiguenave . 9 p. 65. (Philadelphia: Penn Pub13. Edna Taft, A Puritan in Voodoo-Land lishing Co., 1938), chap. ii. 355. 14. Hutter, Plain Talk (March, Commander 1929), p. (R. M. Cutts) to American 15. SD 838.00/2870, Brigade 8, 1930, and Grummon to Stimson, Aug. chargé (S. E. Grummon), Aug, 14, 1930. "Fresh Hope for Haiti," Nation, CXXX, No. 16. Helena Hill Weed, Seabrook, pp. 156-57. 3376 (Mar. 19, 1930), 342-44. chap. X; MARCORPS HQ 17. Brigade Manual, 1932 (Port-au-Prince), the Daniels to H. S. Knapp, Haiti MSS, Box 30. Secretary of Navy 0, and Grummon to Stimson, Aug. chargé (S. E. Grummon), Aug, 14, 1930. "Fresh Hope for Haiti," Nation, CXXX, No. 16. Helena Hill Weed, Seabrook, pp. 156-57. 3376 (Mar. 19, 1930), 342-44. chap. X; MARCORPS HQ 17. Brigade Manual, 1932 (Port-au-Prince), the Daniels to H. S. Knapp, Haiti MSS, Box 30. Secretary of Navy --- Page 295 --- NOTES TO PAGES 139-143 28, 1918; NA, RG80, File No. 5528-129. Testimony RADM, USN, May Hearings, 1922, p. 181. Wise, A Marine of Rev. L. Ton Evans; Senate Wood, "The American Uplift in Haiti," Tells It to You, p. 334. Clement 1928), 152 ff. Scottman, Leatherneck, Pt. I, Crisis, XXXV, No. 5 (May, XXVI, No. 2, 22 ff. 78. Testimony of H. M. Pilkington; 18. Craige, Cannibal Cousins, p. Along This Way, pp. 348Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 794. J. W. Johnson, World, Apr. 10, 1927. K. S. 49. Robert Herrick article in the New York p. 2A. New Republic, XXX, No. 381, 108. Seabrook, Angell, MSS, pp. 163-64. 19. Cumberland Lejeune to S. W. Morgan, Sept. 19, 1927. 20. SD 838.00/2402, MARCORPS HQ Haiti MSS, 21. Brigade Manual, 1932, chap. X; Box 30. Weed, Nation, CXXX, No. 3376, 343. Seabrook, 22. Taft, p. 94. See also pp. 156-57. with Harry R. Long, comptroller of the Hai23. Ibid. Also interview Somerville, N.J., Apr. 22, 1967. tian-American Sugar Co., 1916-18, 24. Taft, p. 105. 343. Seabrook, p. 139. Rayford W. 25. Weed, Nation, CXXX, No. 3376, Southern Workman (HampLogan, "Haiti: The Native Point of View," 36-40. K. S. Angell, New LVIII, No. 1 (January, 1929), ton Institute), Republic, XXX, No. 381, 108. Jan. 14, 1924. SD 838.4237/ 26. SD 838.00/2007, Munro memorandum, 1922. For the Haitian minister's appraisal, 48, Russell to Hughes, Dec. 22, Dec. 14, 1923. SD 838.4237/50, Hughes to Coolidge, SD see 838.61/63a, General) to Harding, Oct. 7, 1922. Harry Daugherty (Attorney to Hughes, Oct. 18, 1922, and Hughes 838.4237/43, Medill McCormick Harding to Hughes, Oct. Oct. 21, 1922. SD 838.4237/45, to McCormick, Journal of Negro History, XXV, No. 3, 330. 9, 1922. Padgett, 310-12. 27. Seabrook, p. 128. Wise, pp. 28. Seabrook, p. 133. Tide of Color Against White World29. Lothrop Stoddard, The Rising Scribner's Sons, 1921), pp. 100, 227. Supremacy (New York: Charles Development of Intervention in Haiti," 30. Charles E. Chapman, "The VII (1927), 299-319. Hispanto-American Historical Review, H. S. Knapp, RADM, USN, to 31. "Supplementary Report on Haiti," 13, 1921; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632. Secretary of the Navy (Denby), Jan. ca. 1934), unpub32. Russell, "A Marine Looks Back on Haiti" File (n.d., No. 4-50. lished MS, pp. 61, 67; MARCORPS MUS, MS 33. Wise, A Marine Tells It to You, p. 308. ispanto-American Historical Review, H. S. Knapp, RADM, USN, to 31. "Supplementary Report on Haiti," 13, 1921; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632. Secretary of the Navy (Denby), Jan. ca. 1934), unpub32. Russell, "A Marine Looks Back on Haiti" File (n.d., No. 4-50. lished MS, pp. 61, 67; MARCORPS MUS, MS 33. Wise, A Marine Tells It to You, p. 308. --- Page 296 --- NOTES TO PAGES 143-145 the Replacing of the "Memorandum Concerning 34. SD 838.105/122, Guard," ca. March, 1919, by Present Occupation of Haiti by a Legation Russell. Commission for the Study and Review 35. "Report of the President's of Haiti"; FR, 1930, III, 217-37. of Conditions in the Republic Wilson to S. W. Morgan, Aug, 12, 1927. 36. SD 838.00/2373, W. M. minister to Haiti), 37. Francis White to Dana G. Munro (American Feb. 24, 1932; White MSS, Box 5. to Stimson, Aug, 29, 1930. 38. SD 838.00/2881, S. E. Grummon Haiti," Pt. I, Nation, 39. James Weldon Johnson, "Self-Determining Nation, CXI, No. CXI, No. 2878 (Aug, 28, 1920), 238. M. McCormick, 2891, 616. to Wilson, Dec. 13, 1915. 838.51/449, 40. SD 838.51/448a, Lansing 1915. Also 838.51/1323, Frank McIntyre Wilson to Lansing, Dec. 16, June 16, 1922. Also (chief, Bureau of Insular Affairs) to Maumus, 1922. See speech by Senator 838.51/1336, Harding to Hughes, July 31, of McIlhenny as financial George W. Norris criticizing appointment 1922, LXII, Pt. 9, 8968-69. Norris adviser; CR, 67th Cong, 2d Sess., who had no experience argued that Mcllhenny was a political otherwise appointee unsuited for the job. in financial administration and Wilson was to Morgan, Aug. 12, 1927, quoted 41. SD 838.00/2373, W. M. of Haiti," Pt. II, above. Paul H. Douglas, "The American Occupation 368-96. Hunt, Rising Political Science Quarterly, XLII, No. 3 (1927), 1929), 349. 192. Hutter, Plain Talk (March, Temper of The East, p. the West Indies, p. 118. Franck, Roaming Through commissioner) to Dr. Julius Klein (direc42. Franck E. Coombs (trade Commerce), Aug. 30, 1922; NA, tor, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Domestic Commerce, RG151, File Records of the Bureau of Foreign and No. 430.37. to a 1964 inquiry Leyburn stated that 43. Leyburn, 103n. In response was for making this assertion; Leyhe did not recall what his authority in Ann Hurst letter to Robert D. burn letter to Ann Hurst, 1964, quoted June 29, 1964, copy in my possession. Heinl, Jr., COL, USMC (Ret.), McCormick to Hughes, Dec. 14, 1921. 44. SD 838.00/1825%, Handle Haitians?" unpublished under45. Ann Hurst, "Southerners to May 4, 1964. Ann Hurst letter to graduate term paper, Wellesley College, in my possession. Hurst based Robert D. Heinl, Jr., June 29, 1964, of copy the Register of the Commissioned her conclusions on an examination States and Marine Corps for and Warrant Officers of the United Navy publication covering the the years in question. There is no of comparable enlisted men. places of birth and duty stations 838.00/1825%, Handle Haitians?" unpublished under45. Ann Hurst, "Southerners to May 4, 1964. Ann Hurst letter to graduate term paper, Wellesley College, in my possession. Hurst based Robert D. Heinl, Jr., June 29, 1964, of copy the Register of the Commissioned her conclusions on an examination States and Marine Corps for and Warrant Officers of the United Navy publication covering the the years in question. There is no of comparable enlisted men. places of birth and duty stations --- Page 297 --- NOTES TO PAGES 145-151 Bulletin (Marine Corps), VI, No. 9 (November, 1921), 46. Recruiter's Eastern Recruiting Division to all dis2. Memorandum, Headquarters General Correspondence, Recruiting, tricts, Apr. 18, 1924; NA, RG127, 1924-25, Box 3. Grummon to Stimson, Aug. 29, 1930. 47. SD 838.00/2881, Russell to Stimson, Dec. 3, 1929. 48. SD 838.42/81, RADM, USN, Military Governor of Santo 49. Cole to H. S. Knapp, 1922, pp. 1777-85. Domingo, May 17, 1917; Senate Hearings, Commander (Cole), Feb. 25, 50. Ibid. Daily Diary Report, Brigade 1917; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632. BRIG GEN, USMC; Senate 51. Testimony of Smedley D. Butler, 240. Hearings, 1922, 517. Thomas, Old Gimlet Eye, p. York: Minton, Balch & 52. John Houston Craige, Black Bagdad (New Co., 1933), 133. Report, Brigade Commander (Russell), 53. Supplement to Daily Diary Apr. 4, 1921; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632. 1926; Forbes Commission 54. Francis White to Kellogg, May 10, Papers, Box 1, "Elections." 19, 1922; Le Moniteur 55. Louis Borno, Circulaire aux Préfets, May Les Mensonges de notre (Port-au-Prince), May 20, 1922. Also Damase, démocratie, pp. 155-64. XXX, No. 381, 108. 56. K. S. Angell, New Republic, 29, 1930. Danache, Grummon to Stimson, Aug. 57. SD 838.00/2881, 68-69. 69. Cumberland MSS, p. 157. 58. Danache, p. McCormick to Hughes, Dec. 14, 1921. 59. SD 838.00/1825%, Senate Hearings, 1922, p. 794. 60. Testimony of H. M. Pilkington; filles de France (Paris: Fasquelle 61. Marthe Oulié, Les Antilles, Editeurs, 1935), p. 305 n'aime les américains, mais . . " La 62. Arthur Lescouflair, "Je pas Les Péripéties d'une Nov. 6, 1915. Beaugé Bercy, Plume (Port-au.-Prince), Librairie L. Rodstein, 1941). démocratie (Paris: Sociology, XLVI, No. 1, 33. Murdo J. 63. Lobb, American Journal of Social Protest, *? Journal of Inter-AmerMacLeod, "The Haitian Novel of ican Studies, IV, No. 2 (April, 1962), 207-21. "La Civilisation haitienne; 64. Lorimer Denis and François Duvalier, Revue de la Société notre mentalité est-elle africaine ou gallo-latine?" No. 23 (May, 1936), 1-29. d'Histoire et de Géographie d'Haiti, VI, in Léopold Sédar-Senghor (ed.), 65. Jean-Paul Sartre, "Orphée Noir" (Paris: Presses UniAnthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache versitaires de France, 1948), pp. ix-xliv. Duvalier, Revue de la Société notre mentalité est-elle africaine ou gallo-latine?" No. 23 (May, 1936), 1-29. d'Histoire et de Géographie d'Haiti, VI, in Léopold Sédar-Senghor (ed.), 65. Jean-Paul Sartre, "Orphée Noir" (Paris: Presses UniAnthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache versitaires de France, 1948), pp. ix-xliv. --- Page 298 --- NOTES TO PAGES 151-157 of "Négri- "The French West Indian Background 66. G. R. Coulthard, VI, No. 3 (December, 1961), 128-36. tude," Caribbean Quarterly, (Port-au-Prince: Imp. de l'Etat, 67. Stephen Alexis, Le Nègre Masqué 1933), 56-57, 67, 96. (Port-au-Prince: Imp. V. Val68. Virgile Valcin, La Blanche Négresse cin, 1934?). "Me revoici Harlem," quoted in Pan Amer69. See Jean Brierre's poem 110. See Maurice Casseus, Viejo ican Union, An Introduction to Haiti, 1935), p. for a proletarian novel about (Port-au-Prince: Editions La Presse, in Cuba. For a biography of a Haitian Haitian workers being exploited Bonnard Posy, Roussan Camille (Port- "engagée" writer of the period, see au-Prince: Imp. des Antilles, 1962). Haters of Haiti," Independent, 70. See Harry L. Foster, "American 128-30, for a discussion of the martyr CXXI, No. 4080 (Aug. 11, 1928), Dantès Bellegarde, Dessalines complex attributed to Haitian journalists. d'Editions et de Librairie, 1948), pp. a parlé (Port-au-Prince: Société the Occupation given at the 21-22. Also Bellegarde speech opposing 1930, quoted in La Presse Assembly of the League of Nations, September, (Port-au-Prince), Oct. 15, 1930. to Garde d'Haiti, 71. G.J. O'Shea, chief of Police Office, Port-au-Prince, July 6, 1929; NA, RG127, Filecase 251-450. 72. Foster, pp. 144, 254. Franck, p. 116. "Proud Haiti Demands Her 58. Harold N. Denny, 73. Vandegrift, p. 8. and Office Operat- > NYT, Oct. 9, 1932, Pt. VI, p. "Living ComOld Freedom, 4, 1927, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic ing Costs in Haiti," June NA, Records of the Bureau of Foreign merce, Special Circular No. 77; File No. 27843-6. In 1927 four and Domestic Commerce, RG350, Seabrook, p. 10. servants cost a total of $31 monthly; in Haiti," Journal of Negro History, 74. Rayford W. Logan, "Education XV, No. 4 (October, 1930), 401-60. CHAPTER 8 241. Vandegrift, Once a Marine, p. 58. 1. Thomas, Old Gimlet Eye, p. 1926, pp. 2-3. 2. Annual Report, High Commissioner, White to Kellogg, Feb. 25, 1925. 3. SD 838.00/2108, Francis américaine . . . > 21n. Bellegarde points 4. Bellegarde, L'Uccupation Haitians to vote in constituout the irony of the Occupation permitting arguing that they were too ignotional plebiscites while simultaneously rant to choose elected representatives. An in Pragmatism," > B. Weatherly, "Haiti: Experiment 5. Ulysses XXXII, No. 3 (November, 1926), 353-66. American Journal of Sociology, . 3. SD 838.00/2108, Francis américaine . . . > 21n. Bellegarde points 4. Bellegarde, L'Uccupation Haitians to vote in constituout the irony of the Occupation permitting arguing that they were too ignotional plebiscites while simultaneously rant to choose elected representatives. An in Pragmatism," > B. Weatherly, "Haiti: Experiment 5. Ulysses XXXII, No. 3 (November, 1926), 353-66. American Journal of Sociology, --- Page 299 --- NOTES TO PAGES 157-162 Financial Adviser, 1927, p. 104. 6. Annual Report, article in New York World, Dec. 15, 1929, quoted 7. Eve E. Sorensen 1929, LXXII, Pt. 1, 913-14. in CR, 71st Cong, 2d Sess., VII, No. 4, 556-70. 8. Millspaugh, Foreign Affairs, W. Mintz, "Peasant Markets," Scientific 9. See, for instance, Sidney 1960), 112 ff. American, CCIII, No. 2 (August, Change in Haiti: Patterns of 10. Charles John Erasmus, "Agricultural XI, No. 4 (Winter, Resistance and Acceptance," Human Organization, 1952), 20-26. the Receivership of Customs, 1918 11. Republic of Haiti, Report of 36. (Washington, 1919), p. 52; ibid. (1917), p. 12. McCrocklin, Garde d'Haiti, p. 122. Aug. 29, 1930. Grummon to Stimson, 13. SD 838.00/2881, of Haitian payrolls, see Caperton to Waller, 14. For American scrutiny Haiti MSS, Box 25. Also Vandegrift, Jan. 14, 1916; MARCORPS HQ American standards of honesty was the p. 52. A notable exception to high of customs at Port-au-Prince accept1933 case of the American collector Department of State press release, Apr. ing bribes from local merchants; 13, 1933; FR, 1933, V, 788-89. du Gouvemement des Etats-Unis 15. Beauvoir, Le Contrôle financier sur la République d'Haiti, pp. 124-35. 1929; FR, 1929, III, 211-15. 16. Russell to Stimson, Apr. 2, that the loans were forced on them by 17. Some Haitians contended of Georges N. Leger, U.S., Congress, the United States; see testimony Sale of Foreign Bonds or Securities in the Senate, Committee on Finance, 1st Sess., 1931-32, Pt. 4, 2127-61. United States, Hearings, 72d Cong, had refused to pass loan authorizaThe Dartiguenave client-government tions. Under American Control, 119-20. Montague, 18. Millspaugh, Haiti Haiti and the United States, p. 245. States and Haiti, Oct. 3, 1919; FR, 19. Protocol between the United 1919, II, 347-52. 20. Millspaugh, p. 120. York World, Feb. 19, 1924. Balch, 21. NYT, June 23, 1920, p. 21. New Adviser, 1927, pp. 73-74. pp. 44-45. Annual Report, Financial May 31, 1922. 838.51/1308, 22. SD 838.51/1332, Munro memorandum, 838.51/1500%, "History of the McIlhenny to Munro, June 1, 1922. Lucile Atcherson, Division of Haitian Loan Negotiations, 1915-," by Latin American Affairs, February, 1923. Beaumont (Shearman & Ster23. Ibid. Also SD 838.51/2801, Bank) Harefort to de la Rue, Feb. 8, 1934. ling, representing National City 51/1308, 22. SD 838.51/1332, Munro memorandum, 838.51/1500%, "History of the McIlhenny to Munro, June 1, 1922. Lucile Atcherson, Division of Haitian Loan Negotiations, 1915-," by Latin American Affairs, February, 1923. Beaumont (Shearman & Ster23. Ibid. Also SD 838.51/2801, Bank) Harefort to de la Rue, Feb. 8, 1934. ling, representing National City --- Page 300 --- NOTES TO PAGES 162-166 Bureau of Foreign and Domestic 24. U.S., Department of Commerce, Foreign Securities in 1931 (Trade Commerce, American Underuriting of Information Bulletin No. 802), p. 14. Sale of Foreign 25. U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Finance, 72d Cong, 1st Sess., Bonds or Securities in the United States, Hearings, 1931-32, Pt. I, facing p. 162. to W. R. Scott, Feb. 16, 1932. See 26. SD 838.51/2396, Cumberland Haitian minister to Washington, to also 838.51/2376, Dantès Bellegarde, statement made by Charles Stimson, Jan. 15, 1932, commenting Bank, on to the Senate Finance ComMitchell, president of National City loans mittee to the effect that large profit spreads on Latin-American implied that this officials. Bellegarde included bribes to Latin-American exorbitant Series C profits. might have accounted for extérieure de la Républic dHaitl 27. Malval, La Politique financière Bank, successor to National City depuis 1910, p. 97. First National City in 1970 that it no longer has records Bank, informed me in 1967 and again of National City Bank Haiti transactions. 186. 28. Chatelain, La Banque Nationale, p. Apr. 23, 1924. 838.516/225, 29. SD 838.516/223, Munro to L. Harrison, 838.51/1648, Cumberland to C. E. Mitchell to Russell, Jan. 22, 1925. depository for Russell, Apr. 12, 1924. National City Bank, as privileged totaling $4 funds, paid 2.25% on Haitian deposits Haitian government Bank of Commerce offered 3.25% and 3.75%. million while the National 30. FR, 1919, II, 347-51. Aug. 12, 1921. 31. SD 838.51/1129, Mitchell to Francis Hughes, White, Mar. 23, 1923. 32. SD 838.51/1517, Munro to Aug. 20, 1921. 33. SD 838.51/1132, Harding to Hughes, bonds, 1922; NA, Records of 34. National City Bank flier on Haitian the Bureau of Insular Affairs, RG350, File No. Commerce," 27770-13. Bulletin of the 35. W. W. Cumberland, "Haiti's Foreign 1925), 1133-36. Pan American Union, LIX, No. 11 (November, 36. Cumberland MSS, p. 181. Pan American Union, LIX, No. 11, 37. Cumberland, Bulletin of Cumberland the to W. R. Scott, Apr. 13, 1931. 1133-36. SD 838.51/2254%, Review of the Finances of the Republic of 38. Republic of Haiti, A submitted to the American High ComHaiti; 1924-1930, by S. de la Rue, Financial Adoiser, 1927, missioner, Mar. 3, 1930, p. 27. Annual debt Report, reduction was the result of p. 95. A portion of the supplemental stipulated in the three loan supplemental amortization requirements indicated that concontracts; ibid. (1930), p. 97. These requirements intended from the outset. extractive fnancial policies were servative, 38. Republic of Haiti, A submitted to the American High ComHaiti; 1924-1930, by S. de la Rue, Financial Adoiser, 1927, missioner, Mar. 3, 1930, p. 27. Annual debt Report, reduction was the result of p. 95. A portion of the supplemental stipulated in the three loan supplemental amortization requirements indicated that concontracts; ibid. (1930), p. 97. These requirements intended from the outset. extractive fnancial policies were servative, --- Page 301 --- NOTES TO PAGES 166-170 39. Millspaugh, Haiti Under American 40. U.S., Department of State, Control, 125. sion . . . > p. 12. Report of the President's Commis41. SD 838.51/2254% Cumberland to had himself invested in Haitian bonds. Scott, Apr. 13, 1931. Cumberland 42. Annual Report, Financial Adviser, 43. Republic of Haiti, A Review 1927, p. 104. 44. Ibid., p. 29. of Finances . . 2 p. 28. 45, Millspaugh, p. 120. My interview with Dana N.J., Feb. 28, 1968. G. Munro, Princeton, 46. Millspaugh, p. 156. 47. Annual Report, Financial Adviser, "Annual Report of the Financial 1927, p. 95. SD 838.00/2440, 48. For a clear statement of this Adviser-General Receiver, 1927." tary of State, see Huntington hypothesis by a former Assistant SecreWilson, "The Foreign Investment, > Annals of the American Relation of Government to Social Science, LXVIII (November, Academy of Political and 49. SD 838.00/1859, 1916), 298-311, 50. Annual Mayer to Welles, Jan. 31, 1921, Report, Financial Adviser, 51. SD 838.00/2602, Munro to Francis 1927, p. 108. 838.153C73/23, "Matters in White, Oct. 26, 1929. See also Corporation and the Controversy Between the Haytian Haitian American tion to the Department of State, Government," submitted by the corpora52. Daniels to Lansing, Feb. July 22, 1920, 37 pp. 838.63/51, Munro to S. K. Hornbeck, 8, 1916; NA, RG45, WA-7, Box 632. SD 53. Ibid., A. N. Young Oct. 5, 1922. 54. SD 838.00/1948, memorandum, Apr. 29, 1923. Harding to Hughes, referring to a proposed logwood concession. June 18, 1923. Harding was notoriously involved in the Teapot Dome Sinclair Oil interests were 55. "Wards of the United States: Notes scandal. for Santo Domingo, on What Our Country Is Nicaragua, and Haiti," National Doing (July-December, 1916), 143-77, West Geographic, XXX tion Co., Haitian Investigation; Plains India Management and ConsultaYork: May 10, 1916), 8. of Cul de Sac and Leogane p. (New 56. MacCorkle, The Monroe Doctrine in Its Haiti, pp. 25-26. Relation to the Republic of 57. West India Management and tion, pp. 28-27. Roger W. Babson article Consultation in Co., Haitian Investiga1915. the New York Sun, Sept, 19, 58. West India Management and Consultation tion, p. 26. J. W. DuB. Gould, General Co., Haitian InvestigaReport on Haiti (Chicago: P. W. Sac and Leogane p. (New 56. MacCorkle, The Monroe Doctrine in Its Haiti, pp. 25-26. Relation to the Republic of 57. West India Management and tion, pp. 28-27. Roger W. Babson article Consultation in Co., Haitian Investiga1915. the New York Sun, Sept, 19, 58. West India Management and Consultation tion, p. 26. J. W. DuB. Gould, General Co., Haitian InvestigaReport on Haiti (Chicago: P. W. --- Page 302 --- NOTES TO PAGES 170-174 Haiti, An American Slave Colony Chapman, 1916), p. 11. G. Padmore, "Memorandum in connection (Moscow: Centrizdat, 1931), pp. 16-20. the Patriotic Union," Brigade Comwith the raising of a subscription by RG127, Miscellaneous Reports, mand, Port-au-Prince, Jan. 9, 1922; NA, Haiti, Filecase 83. Financial Adviser, 1930, p. 117. 59. Annual Report, of Economic Adviser Memorandum, Apr. 23, 60. SD 837.5538/7, Office P. to Kellogg, Sept. 10, 1925. Pad1928. Also 838.5637/6MP, M. Dunlap more, pp. 24-25. 1922, pp. 111-12, 749-58, 789-812. 61. Senate Hearings, L. Farnham; ibid., pp. 111-12. 62. Testimony of Roger dans les campagnes d'Haiti: la 63. Candelon Rigaud, Promenades 1789-1928 (Paris: Plaine de la Croix des Bouquets dite "Cul-de-Sac," 189-91. For a comprehensive L'Edition Française Universelle, 192?), pp. Investments of description of American capital investments, see 214-16, Winkler, 274-78. See also United States Capital in Latin America, pp. H. P. Davis, Black Democracy, pp. 282-84. Investments (Wash64. Cleona Lewis, Americd's Stake in International Wilhelm Koch, Beitràge zur ington: Brookings Institution, 1938), p. 590. Landschaftskunde und zur Geschichte der Lmichetensentinr 58-61. H. P. Haiti (Hamburg: A. Preilipper, 1937), pp. der Republik 282. Davis, Black Democracy, p. the of Haiti," by First Marine 65. "Intelligence Monograph on Republic sections 401-300, 401-400; NA, Brigade, Port-au-Prince, Sept. 8, 1930, RG127, Subject File I, Haiti, Filecase 39. 282. Black Democracy, 2d ed. rev. (1936), p. 66. H. P. Davis, Survey of Haiti," by O. W. Barrett, 67. SD 838.61/21, "Agricultural 1922. of Public Works, Geology of the 68. Republic of Haiti, Department John S. Brown, and Wilbur S. BurRepublic of Haiti, by P. Woodring, bank (1924). Bureau of Foreign and Domestic 69. U.S., Department of Commerce, (Trade Information Bulletin No. Commerce, Haiti: An Economic Survey 264, 1924), pp. 13-16. Commissioner, 1925, p. 7. 70. Annual Report, High quoted in Cumberland MSS, pp. 209-10. 71. C. S. Butler, CAPT, USN, VII, No. 4, 556-70. 72. Millspaugh, Foreign Affairs, CHAPTER 9 undated ca. 1920-21; NA, RG127, Miscellaneous 1. Note by Russell, Records, Haiti, Filecase 83. Trade Information Bulletin No. Commerce, Haiti: An Economic Survey 264, 1924), pp. 13-16. Commissioner, 1925, p. 7. 70. Annual Report, High quoted in Cumberland MSS, pp. 209-10. 71. C. S. Butler, CAPT, USN, VII, No. 4, 556-70. 72. Millspaugh, Foreign Affairs, CHAPTER 9 undated ca. 1920-21; NA, RG127, Miscellaneous 1. Note by Russell, Records, Haiti, Filecase 83. --- Page 303 --- NOTES TO PAGES 175-178 2. SD 838.04/10, Munro to Kellogg, Mar. 18, 1925. auf Wirachafsenteichlung und Landschaftscandel 3. Walter Gerling, Haiti und Puerto Rico (Freiburg im den west-indischen Inseln Jamaika, 142-44. Breisgau: Verlag Sintermann, 1938), from pp. the district commander at Les 4. See especially monthly reports concern over the welfare of the popuCayes, 1921, which show constant NA, RG127, Report of Conditions, lation and economic development; Haiti, Z No. 1, Filecase 31. Adviser, 1928, p. 76. 5. See Annual Report, Financial Sept. 11, 1923. Also 6. SD 838.63/52, S. K. Hornbeck memorandum, Apr. 23, 1928. 837.5538/7, Office of Economic Adviser memorandum, 7. Cumberland MSS, pp. 196-200. Dec. 19, 1927. 8. SD 838.51A/75, Russell to Kellogg, 9. Ibid. Financial Adviser, 1926, p. 32. Republic of Haiti, 10. Annual Report, 1934, pp. 99-100. The latter Annual Report of the Fiscal Representative, Fiscal Repredocument will be referred to hereafter as Annual Report, sentative (various years). in NYT, Oct. 16, 1924, p. 8. 11. Hughes quoted extérieure de la Republic d'Haiti 12. Malval, La Politique financière Turnier, Les Etats-Unis et le marché depuis 1910, pp. 67-68, 99-103. Alain 308-10. haitien (Montreal: Imp. Saint-Joseph, 1955), pp. 99-100. 13. Annual Report, Fiscal Representative, 1934, pp. 25, 1925; 14. Freeman to W. M. Jardine, Secretary of Agriculture, and Agricultural June EnNA, Records of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, gineering, RG45, Correspondence No. 4895. Division of Latin American 15. Interview with Dana G. Munro, chief, Affairs in 1929, Princeton, N.J., Feb. 28, 1968. and Financial Progress "Notable Commercial 16. W. W. Cumberland, American Union, LXI, No. 4 (April, 1927), in Haiti," Bulletin of the Pan "The American Occupation of Haiti," 316-19. Raymond Leslie Buell, Service, V, No. 15 (Oct. 2, 1929), Foreign Policy Association Information 327-92. Capital in Latin America, 102. See also 17. United Nations, Foreign Technical Assistance to Haiti, Mission to Haiti United Nations, Mission of (New York, 1949), p. 212. VII, No. 4, 556-70. Also SD 838.52/ 18. Millspaugh, Foreign Affairs, 1929. German, Russell to Stimson, Jan. 21, Intervention in Operation," Foreign 19. Clarence K. Streit, "Haiti: Afairs, VI, No. 4 (July, 1928), 615-32. May 3, 1927, Annual Report, 20. SD 838.00/2313, Coolidge to Kellogg, Mission of (New York, 1949), p. 212. VII, No. 4, 556-70. Also SD 838.52/ 18. Millspaugh, Foreign Affairs, 1929. German, Russell to Stimson, Jan. 21, Intervention in Operation," Foreign 19. Clarence K. Streit, "Haiti: Afairs, VI, No. 4 (July, 1928), 615-32. May 3, 1927, Annual Report, 20. SD 838.00/2313, Coolidge to Kellogg, --- Page 304 --- NOTES TO PAGES 179-183 200. My interview with Harry Financial Adviser, 1928, p. 76. Rigaud, p. R. Long, Somerville, N.J., Feb. 3, 1968. May 5, 1927. 21. SD 838.00/2382, Morgan to Kellogg, de la propriété et de la famille au 22. Georges Séjourné, "Etablissement Revue de la Société d'Historie et de lendemain de Tindépendance," 1935), 9-32. Géographie dHaiti, VI, No. 17 (January, des travaux publique, The 23. Republic of Haiti, Direction générale Public Works of Haiti (1931), p. 44. May 5, 1927. 24. SD 838.00/2382, Morgan to Kellogg, Munro, May 6, 1929. 25. SD 838.52/87, W. R. Scott to 76. 26. Annual Report, Financial Adviser, 1928, p. 8958. 27. CR, 67th Cong, 2d Sess., 1922, LXII, Pt. 9, 20-26. Human Organization, XI, No. 4, 28. Erasmus, Financial Adviser, 1927, p. 53. 29. Annual Report, of conversation with Freeman, 30. SD 838.42/68, Scott memorandum June 28, 1929. VI, No. 4, 615-32. Report of District Com31. Streit, Foreign Affairs, Gendarmerie d'Haiti, Sept. 1, 1921; NA, mander, Aux Cayes, to chief, Haiti, Z No. 1, Filecase 31. RG127, Report of Conditions, Report of the President's Commis32. U.S., Department of State, sion . . 9 p. 7. Sept. 29, 1920; FR, 1921, II, 188-90. 33. Colby to Bailly-Blanchard, Problems in Haiti," Current History, XIII Samuel Guy Inman, "Hard Association Information Service, (1921), 338-42. Buell, Foreign Policy V, No. 15, 364. the of Haiti," by the First 34. "Intelligence Monograph on Republic 1930, sections 204-100, 206-200; Marine Brigade, Port-au-Prince, Sept. 8, NA, RG127, Subject File I, Haiti, Filecase 39. 83. Also Cumberland, 35. Annual Report, Financial Adviser, 1927, p. 316-19. Bulletin of the Pan American Union, LXI, No. 4, 443. Journal of Negro History, XV, No. 4, 36. Logan, of State, Report of the United States Commission 37. U.S., Department October 1, 1930 (1931), p. 15. Forbes Commison Education in Haiti, F. Freeman, Port-au-Prince, Mar. 13, sion interview with Dr. George 1930; Forbes Commission Papers, Box 1. 6-7. 38. Annual Report, High Commissioner, Nationale 1925, pp. de la Production Agri39. Ibid. République d'Haiti, Service Annuel, 1931-1932, pp. 1-6. cole et de l'Enseignement Rural, Thaw Rapport with Freeman, Oct. 2, 1926. SD 838.42/38, conversation B. History, XV, No. 4, 401-60. La Presse 40. Logan, Journal of Negro Also H. P. Davis, "Haiti After 1936: So (Port-au-Prince), Apr. 25, 1930. ri39. Ibid. République d'Haiti, Service Annuel, 1931-1932, pp. 1-6. cole et de l'Enseignement Rural, Thaw Rapport with Freeman, Oct. 2, 1926. SD 838.42/38, conversation B. History, XV, No. 4, 401-60. La Presse 40. Logan, Journal of Negro Also H. P. Davis, "Haiti After 1936: So (Port-au-Prince), Apr. 25, 1930. --- Page 305 --- NOTES TO PAGES 183-190 1930), Outlook, CLIV, No. 12 (Mar. 19, Far Intervention Has Failed," 443 ff. interview with Freeman, Mar. 13, 1930; Forbes 41. Forbes Commission Commission Papers, Box 1. Nov. 27, 1929. Eve E. Sorensen 42. SD 838.42/77, Russell to Stimson, in CR, 71st Cong, 2d article, New York World, Dec. 15, 1929, quoted were $25 per month, so Sess., 1929, LXXII, Pt. 1, 913-14. Scholarships their relative munificence, but Sorensen was undoubtedly exaggerating this was still a very attractive sum. speech, Mar. 25, 1925. 43. SD 838.4237/64, Freeman Scott memorandum of 44. For enrollment statistics, see SD 838.42/68, conversation with Freeman, June 28, 1929. Feb. 28, 1968. 45. My interview with Munro, Princeton, N.J, of conversation with Farn46. SD 838.6113/80, Thurston memorandum ham, Mar. 17, 1931. memorandum of conversation with Guy 47. SD 838.5045/34, Scott of the Financial Adviser, Dec. 18, 1929. Wadsworth, assistant in the Office XV, No. 4, 401-60. Also SD 48. Logan, Journal of Negro History, 18, 1930. Eve E. Sorensen article 838.5045/46, Hoover to J. P. Cotton, Jan. in CR, 71st Cong, 2d Sess., in New York World, Dec. 15, 1929, quoted Russell to Cotton, Feb. 1929, LXXII, Pt. I, 913-14. Also SD 838.5045/47, 4, 1930. Munro to Cotton, Feb. 20, 1930. 49. SD 838.42 Moton Commission/12, Feb. 28, 1968. My Munro interview, Princeton, N.J., Grummon to Stimson, July 7, 50. SD 838.42 Moton Commission/62, 1930. Annual Report of the American 51. U.S., Department of State, Eighth Haiti, 1929 (Washington, 1930). High Commissioner at Port-au-Prince, CHAPTER 10 1. Annual Report, High Commissioner, 1922-29. 2. Cumberland MSS, pp. 158, and 164. Mar. 26, 1927, p. 9. Also Le Moniteur 3. NYT, Mar. 13, 1927, p. 1, Grew to Russell, Mar. 9, 1927; FR, 1927, (Port-au-Prince), Mar. 17, 1927. III, 81-82. 215-17. See also J. S. Turrill, COL, USMC, 4. Cumberland MSS, pp. Marine Corps, Mar. 14, 1927; Lejeune to John A. Lejeune, Commandant, MSS, Container 4. XXXV, No. 5 (May, 1928), 152 ff. 5. Wood, Crisis, Tribunals in Haiti," by D. G. 6. SD 838.203/2, "The Use of Military Munro, Dec. 11, 1929. 82. 215-17. See also J. S. Turrill, COL, USMC, 4. Cumberland MSS, pp. Marine Corps, Mar. 14, 1927; Lejeune to John A. Lejeune, Commandant, MSS, Container 4. XXXV, No. 5 (May, 1928), 152 ff. 5. Wood, Crisis, Tribunals in Haiti," by D. G. 6. SD 838.203/2, "The Use of Military Munro, Dec. 11, 1929. --- Page 306 --- 7. Russell NOTES TO PAGES 191-197 8. to Kellogg, Jan. 7, 1926; FR, 1926, II, 396. 9. Millspaugh, SD Current History, XXXI, No. 5 (Feb., 1930), 838.51A/154, de la Rue to W. R. 919-26. 10. SD 838.00/2319, Russell to Castle, May 8, 1929. 11. Ibid., S. W. Morgan to Francis Kellogg, May 14, 1927. 12. Russell to Kellogg, June 1, 1927; White, June 14, 1927. 13. Kellogg to Christian FR, 1927, III, 48-50. 14. SD 838.011/89, W. M. Gross, Aug. 16, 1927; ibid., 65-66. 27, 1927. Wilson to Francis White and Morgan, June 15. Ibid. 16. Annual Report, High 17. Stimson to Russell, Apr. Commissioner, 1928, p. 2. Stimson, Mar. 14, 1929; ibid., 11, 1929; FR, 1929, III, p. 170. Russell to 18. SD pp. 166-69, to Russell, 838.00/2519%, Aug. 22, 1929; Munro to Francis White, Apr. 23, 1929. Stimson 14, 1929; tbid., 166-69, FR, 1929, III, 171-72. Russell to pp. Stimson, Mar. 19. SD 838.00/2519%, Munro to White, 20. La Presse Apr. 23, 1929. lation of Borno (Port-au-Prince), circular of Oct. Nov. 4, 1929, "English Section," B transscheduled for Jan. 10, 1930. 6, 1929, canceling legislative elections 21. SD 838.42/40, Russell to the Nation, 22. Foster, Independent, Jan. 24, 1927. No. 5, (June, 1928), 152. CXXI, No. 4080, 128-30. Wood, Crisis, XXXV 23. SD 838.00/2354, Gross Bellegarde, to L'Occupation américaine . > 14n. 24. Buell, Foreign Kellogg, July 13, 1927. 385. Also Le Nouvelliste Policy Asociation Information Service, V, No. 15, Ruhl, "Muzzling Editors in (Port-au-Prince), Haiti," July 4, 1929. See also Arthur 1925), 468-71, American Mercury, V, No. 20 (August, 25. File on press censorship, 1916-21; 28. 838.00/1894, Hughes to Russell, Oct. MARCORPS HQ Haiti MSS, Box Munro to Francis White, Dec. 4, 1922. Also, 838.00/1999, 26. Republic of 15, 1925. Nouvelliste, Haiti, Garde d'Haiti, Annual Nov. 8 and 14, 1929. "Student Report, 1929, p. 7. Le Haiti MSS, Box 29. Strike" file; MARCORPS HQ 27. Forbes Commission interview with Commission Papers, Box 1. Freeman, Mar. 13, 1930; Forbes 28. John H. Russell, "A Marine Looks Back (n.d., ca. 1934), 27; MARCORPS on Haiti," unpublished MS High Commissioner, 1929, 6. MUS, MS File 4-50. Annual 29. Le Nouvelliste, Oct. p. Report, 30. Russell to 9-Dec. 4, 1929. Stimson, Nov. 25, 27, 29, 1929; FR, 1929, III, 178-82, , Mar. 13, 1930; Forbes 28. John H. Russell, "A Marine Looks Back (n.d., ca. 1934), 27; MARCORPS on Haiti," unpublished MS High Commissioner, 1929, 6. MUS, MS File 4-50. Annual 29. Le Nouvelliste, Oct. p. Report, 30. Russell to 9-Dec. 4, 1929. Stimson, Nov. 25, 27, 29, 1929; FR, 1929, III, 178-82, --- Page 307 --- NOTES TO PAGES 197-202 31. Russell to Stimson, Dec. 2 and 8, 32. Garde d'Haiti, Annual 1929; ibid., pp. 174, 188. 33. SD Report, 1929, pp. 7-8. 838.5045/37, de la Rue to W. R. Castle, Dec. 838.5045/34, Scott conversation with 10, 1929. See also 34. C. F. Wood to Guy Wadsworth, Dec. 18, 1929. 838.00/2673, personal Stimson, letter Dec. 4, 1929; FR, 1929, III, 190. Also SD mother, Dec. 8, 1929. Also from Margaret Scoville, Cap Haitien, to her Also "Student Strike" file; MARCORPS 838.5045/12, Russell to Stimson, Dec. 7, 1929. 35. SD 838.5045/21, HQ Haiti MSS, Box 29. mandant, Dec, 4, 1929. Brigade Commander to Major General Com36. Le Nouvelliste, Dec. 5 and 16, 1929. Bulletin, VI, No. 12 (December, Republic of Haiti, Monthly 37. SD 838.5045 /4, Stimson to 1929), 1. son to Russell, Dec. 5, 1929. Russell, Dec. 4, 1929. 838.00/2613, Stim38. SD 838.00/2615A, Stimson to 39. Garde d'Haiti, Annual Russell, Dec. 4, 1929. 40. Annual Report, Report, 1929, p. 8. High "The Massacre at Aux Cayes," Commissioner, 1929, p. 10. L. J. De Bekker, 308-10. Also Russell to Nation, CXXX, No. 3376 (Mar. 19, 41. Account of Lester Stimson, Dec. 5, 1929; FR, 1929, II, 190-91. 1930), USMC, quoted in New York N. Gillaspey and William T. Myers, privates, 42. NYT, Dec. 8, 1929, 2. Telegram, Dec. 9, 1929, p. 9. 43. Ibid. Also SD p. Russell added that 838.5045/6, Russell to Stimson, Dec. 6, 1929, in which revolt. >> Also SD 838.5045/47, "Magistrate at Cayes reported whole countryside in 44. De Bekker, Nation, Russell to Cotton, Feb. 4, 1930. 45. SD 838.5045/45, CXXX, No. 3376 (March 19, 1930), 308-10. 46, Hoover to Cotton, Cotton to Francis White, Jan. 20, 1930. Jan. 18, 1930. Also SD 838.5045/ ton, Feb. 4, 1930. 838.5045/47, Russell to Cot46. Ibid. 47. Nation, CXXX, No. 3386 48. Hoover (May 28, 1930), 612. Telegram, Dec. message 3, to Congress, Dec. 3, 1929, quoted in New York Latin-American 1929, p. 8. Alexander De Conde, Herbert Hoover's 49. SD 838.00/2027, Policy (Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 1951), p. 79. 50. Stimson to Stimson to Russell, Dec. 9, 1929. 51. NYT, Dec. Russell, Dec. 9, 1929; FR, 1929, III, 198-99, 52. 13, 1929, p. 13. Russell to Stimson, Dec. 9, 1929; FR, 53. SD 838.5045/38, Munro to 1929, III, 197-98. 54. SD 838.5045/39, Stimson White, Dec. 26, 1929. 55. Annual Report, to Russell, Dec. 31, 1929. High Commissioner, 1928, p. 1. 9, 1929; FR, 1929, III, 198-99, 52. 13, 1929, p. 13. Russell to Stimson, Dec. 9, 1929; FR, 53. SD 838.5045/38, Munro to 1929, III, 197-98. 54. SD 838.5045/39, Stimson White, Dec. 26, 1929. 55. Annual Report, to Russell, Dec. 31, 1929. High Commissioner, 1928, p. 1. --- Page 308 --- NOTES TO PAGES 202-205 1929, p. 7. See also SD 56. Annual Report, High Commissioner, 1929. 838.42/74, Russell to Stimson, Nov. 29, 9. 57. Annual Report, High Commissioner, Russell 1929, to p. Stimson, Jan. 7, 1930. 58. SD 838.00 General Conditions/37, 19, 1930. Also Russell to StimAlso 838.00/2802, Russell to Stimson, Apr. son, Feb. 12, 1930; 838.113/19. 28; MARCORPS MUS, "A Marine Looks Back on Haiti," p. 59. Russell, MS File 4-50. reports on individual 60. For a sampling of over intelligence 1-250, 66-HE-108-HC, 251-450, Haitians, see NA, RG127, Filecases 76-JBTP Au P 107-SN, and 81. 1-JFF-29-LS, 30-PCJ-65-VJ, 6-10-1-6-17-1, 1. See also New York Telegram, Dec. 14, 61. NYT, Dec. 15, 1929, p. 1929, and Le Nouvelliste, Dec. 16, 1929. LXXII, Pt. 1, 316-18, 677-78, 917. 62. CR, 71st Cong, 2d Sess., 1929, 1929. Also NYT, Dec. 13 (p. 30) and 19 (p. 3), Dec. 18, 1929; Robert Crosser (D-Ohio), 63. Speech by Representative 1929, LXXII, Pt. 1, 910. CR, 71st Cong, 2d Sess., Huddleston (D-Ala.), Dec. 9, George 64. Speech by Representative 1929; tbid., pp. 317-18. 65. Ibid., pp. 817, 922. CXXVI, No. 3282 (June 6, 1928), 66. "What is News in Haiti?" Nation, Feb. 6, 1930. John H. 627. SD 838.00/2735, L. J. De Bekker to Hoover, officer during CAPT, USMC, had been a Marine publicity the Nation, Craige, War I. See also letter of Don Glassman published in World 1930), 734, which states that the Commandant CXXX, No. 3390 (June 25, AP was an honest of the Garde (Evans), who served as correspondent, person with previous newspaper experience. Digest, CIII, No. 12 (Dec. 21, 1929), 67. "The Hate of Haiti," Literary 6-7. Baltimore Sun, Dec. 8, 1929. 1f. M. Black, Jr. (D-N.Y.), Dec. 18, 68. Speech by Representative 1929, Loring LXXII, Pt. 1, 917. 1929; CR, 71st Cong, 2d Sess., LXXXI (1920), Debates (Commons), 69. Great Britain, Parliamentary (1920), p. 1170. p. 1938; LXXXIV (1920), p. 1665; LXXXVIII America," Atlantic Monthly, 70. Samuel Guy Inman, "Imperialistic CXXXIV, No. 1 (July, 1924), 107-16. 1924 and 838.00/2096, Mar. 29, 1925, 71. SD 838.00/2041, Sept. 26, clippings. Also NYT, June 21, from Paris enclosing French newspaper 1929, p. 1. 3, and Dec. 11, 1929, p. 4. Also SD 838.00/ 72. NYT, Dec. 10, 1929, p. Dec. 12, 1929. 2684, Norman Armour (Paris) to Stimson, 1929, 13, quoted in Donald B. 73. Manchester Guardian, Dec. 9, p. 1925, 71. SD 838.00/2041, Sept. 26, clippings. Also NYT, June 21, from Paris enclosing French newspaper 1929, p. 1. 3, and Dec. 11, 1929, p. 4. Also SD 838.00/ 72. NYT, Dec. 10, 1929, p. Dec. 12, 1929. 2684, Norman Armour (Paris) to Stimson, 1929, 13, quoted in Donald B. 73. Manchester Guardian, Dec. 9, p. --- Page 309 --- NOTES TO PAGES 205-210 Withdrawal of the United States from Haiti, 1929-1934," Cooper, "The Studies, V, No. 1 (January, 1963), 83-101. Journal of Inter-American Dec. 10, 1929, enclosed in SD 838.00/2648, 74. Manchester Guardian, Ray Atherton to Stimson, Dec. 10, 1929. to Stimson, Jan. 4, 1930. 75. SD 838.00/2694, F. P. Hibbard (Bolivia) to Stimson, Jan. 12, 1930. Also 838.00/2716, H. F. Guggenheim (Cuba) to Stimson, Jan. 21, 1930. Also 838.00/2721, H. V. Johnson (Mexico) Jan. 14, 1930. Also 838.00/2723, F. L. Mayer (Peru) to Stimson, 76. Hoover quoted in NYT, Feb. 5, 1930, p. 1. CHAPTER 11 with Dana G. Munro, chief, Division of Latin Ameri1. My interview Princeton, N.J., Feb. 28, 1968. Also SD 838.00/ can Affairs (1929-30), Francis White, Apr. 23, 1929. 2519%, Munro to N.J., Feb. 28, 1968. The Haitian-Ameri2. Munro interview, Princeton, with treaty offiCo. had been embroiled in a lengthy dispute can Sugar Stimson to Russell, Nov. 11, 1929. cials. See also SD 838.00/2604, Allen White's America (New York: Henry 8. Walter Johnson, William Holt & Co., 1947), pp. 417-18. Forbes, Second Series, III, 1930-1934," 4. "Journal of W. Cameron to hereafter as Forbes, p. 3; LC, W. Cameron Forbes Papers (referred "Journal"). 2. Also "Report of the President's Commis5. NYT, Mar. 1, 1930, p. Conditions in the Republic of Haiti, 1930," sion for Study and Review of FR, 1930, III, 217-37. Mar. 6, 1930, quoted in W. John6. Le Nouvelliste (Port-au-Prince), 423. See also Forbes, "Journal," William Allen White's America, p. son, Second Series, III, 31. Mar. 26, 1930. 7. La Presse (Port-au-Prince), Second Series, III, 32, 36. 8. Forbes, "Journal," Russell to Stimson, 9. SD 838.00 Commission of Investigation/108, Mar. 17, 1930. interview with Freeman, Mar. 13, 1930; Forbes 10. Forbes Commission Commission Papers, Box 1. "Confidential 11. Ibid. SD 838.00 Commission of Investigation/132, situation in Haiti," Mernorandum, Steps taken to solve acute political "W. Cameron Mar. 26, 1930. See also Robert M. Spector, by Forbes, Additional Light on the Genesis of the 'Good Neighbor Forbes in Haiti: Studies, VI, No. 2 (July, 1966), 28-45. Policy," Caribbean of Investigation/71, Russell to Stimson, 12. SD 838.00 Commission Mar. 7, 1930. . "Confidential 11. Ibid. SD 838.00 Commission of Investigation/132, situation in Haiti," Mernorandum, Steps taken to solve acute political "W. Cameron Mar. 26, 1930. See also Robert M. Spector, by Forbes, Additional Light on the Genesis of the 'Good Neighbor Forbes in Haiti: Studies, VI, No. 2 (July, 1966), 28-45. Policy," Caribbean of Investigation/71, Russell to Stimson, 12. SD 838.00 Commission Mar. 7, 1930. --- Page 310 --- NOTES TO PAGES 210-217 Second Series, III, 29, 40. 13. Forbes, "Journal," William Allen White's America, 14. White quoted in Walter Johnson, p. 421. R. Scott to Munro, Mar. 29, 1929. Russell to 15. SD 838.00 / /2511, W. 172-73. Stimson, Oct. 24, 1929; FR, 1929, III, Forbes memorandum, 16. SD 838.00 Commission of Investigation/132, Mar. 26, 1930. Secret Agent No. 2 (Paul), Reports No. 20, 17. Intelligence Reports, 12, 1930; MARCORPS HQ Haiti MSS, Jan. 6, 1930, and No. 21, Jan. Box 26. of State J. P. Cotton, Apr. 17, 1930, 18. Forbes to Acting Secretary Second Series, III, 87-88. quoted in Forbes, "Journal," Forbes memorandum, 19. SD 838.00 Commission of Investigation/132, 4. Mar. 26, 1930. Also NYT, Mar. 11, 1930, p. 14, 1930. Cotton Cotton to Russell, Apr. 20. SD 838.00 Elections/64, FR, 1930, III, 245-46. to Russell, Apr. 11, 1930; Report of the President's Commisston 21. U.S., Department of State, in the Republic of Haiti, 1930. for Study and Review of Conditions Reprinted in FR, 1930, III, 217-37. II, 68. Forbes letter to David 22. Forbes, "Journal," Second series, Gray, Oct. 28, 1931; ibid., pp. 103-6. III, 69, 103-6. Forbes later 23. Forbes, "Journal," Second Series, of the Marine supported Russell when he was promoted to Commandant senator), Dec. 23, 1933; Corps in 1934; Forbes to David I. Walsh (U.S. ibid., p. 124. July 10, 1930; White MSS, Box 1. 24. White to Stimson, 25. NYT, Mar. 22, 1930, p. 3. 1930, III, 217-37. of the President's Commission . . "; FR, 26. "Report 27. Ibid. of conversation with 28. SD 838.5045/34, W. R. Scott memorandum of the Financial Adviser, Dec. 18, Wadsworth, assistant in the Office Guy 1929. Russell to Stimson, May 28, 1930. 29. SD 838.00/2636%, 1930; Forbes Commission Papers, Box 4, 30. Russell to Forbes, Mar. 13, Russell to Stimson, May 26, 1930. Russell fle. Also SD 838.00/2836%, FR, 1930, III, 217of the President's Commission . "; 31. "Report Second Series, III, 63. 37. Forbes, "Journal," 23, 1930, and Forbes to Irwin, Apr. 10, 1930; 32. Irwin to Forbes, June ibid., 76-80, 98A-98B. MARCORPS MUS, MS "A Marine Looks Back on Haiti," 33. Russell, File 4-50. , 1930. Russell fle. Also SD 838.00/2836%, FR, 1930, III, 217of the President's Commission . "; 31. "Report Second Series, III, 63. 37. Forbes, "Journal," 23, 1930, and Forbes to Irwin, Apr. 10, 1930; 32. Irwin to Forbes, June ibid., 76-80, 98A-98B. MARCORPS MUS, MS "A Marine Looks Back on Haiti," 33. Russell, File 4-50. --- Page 311 --- NOTES TO PAGES 217-221 Thomas S. D. P. Calixte, Garde d'Haiti, by 34. Report on Captain Département du Centre; Clarke to Clarke, MAJ, USMC, Commander, 1930, MARCORPS HQ Haiti MSS, Commandant, Garde d'Haiti, May 9, Box 22, Headquarters Garde d'Haiti fle. the Dominican Republic and 35. Goldwert, The Constabulary in Nicaragua, p. vii. USMC, "Salient Haitian Facts," Marine 36. Frank E. Evans, COL, 1931), 14 ff. Also SD 838.00/2958, Corps Gazette, XV, No. 4 (February, May 8, 1931. Stimson to W. H. King (U.S. senator), the Finances of the Republic of 37. Republic of Haiti, A Review of de la Rue to Castle, Jan. 7, Haiti; 1924-1930, 31-32. SD 838.51A/188, 1931. of Conversation with Franklin D. Roosevelt, Mon38. "Memorandum Park, New York," Diary No. 25, Henry L. day, January 9 [1933], at Hyde Stimson Papers, Yale Univ. Library. On Active Service in Peace and 39. Ibid. See also Henry L. Stimson, 184. War (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947), p. 29, 1930. Republic of Haiti, 40. SD 838.48/53, Russell to Stimson, Apr. 2-3. Monthly Bulletin, VII, No. 4 (April, 1930), Dec. 27, 1930. Also SD 838.5045/ 41. SD 838.5045/53, Wood to Stimson, Also SD 838.5045/62, Scott memo57, Munro to Stimson, Dec. 30, 1930. randum, Dec. 31, 1930. Grummon to Stimson, Oct. 17, 1930. 42. SD 838.00 Elections/103, entry for Mar. 26, 1934; NA, RG127, 43. Intelligence Report on Jolibois, Filecase 1-JJF-29-LS, fle 1-JJF. 1930; FR, 1930, III, 255-61. 44. Stimson to Munro, Oct. 18, USMC, to Francis White, Mar. 5, 1931; 45. Louis McCarty Little, COL, White MSS, Box 12. Dec. 22, 1930; FR, 1930, III, 286-73. 46. Munro to Stimson, 6. 47. NYT, June 28, 1931, Pt. III, p. 2. 48. Annual Report, Financial Adviser, 1931, p. 2, 23, 25. Also Republic 49. Ibid., pp. 45-46. Also ibid. (1932), pp. Publique, The Public Works of Haiti, Direction Générale des Travaux of Haiti (1931), pp. 49, 58-59. Nadler, and Harry C. Sauvain, Amer50. John T. Madden, Marcus Nation (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1987), ica's Experience as a Creditor p. 308. "Policy Concerning Financial Control in Haiti," 51. SD 838.51/2364%, by W. R. Scott, Nov. 19, 1931. 24, 1931; FR, 1931, II, 406-7. Also Munro 52. Munro to Stimson, Jan. White MSS, Box 14. to Francis White, Jan. 9, 1931; 50. John T. Madden, Marcus Nation (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1987), ica's Experience as a Creditor p. 308. "Policy Concerning Financial Control in Haiti," 51. SD 838.51/2364%, by W. R. Scott, Nov. 19, 1931. 24, 1931; FR, 1931, II, 406-7. Also Munro 52. Munro to Stimson, Jan. White MSS, Box 14. to Francis White, Jan. 9, 1931; --- Page 312 --- NOTES TO PAGES 222-227 Munro to Stimson, June 3, 1931. 53. SD 838.00/2978, June 22, 1931; FR, 1931, II, 484-85. 54. Stimson to Munro, Mar. 5, 1931; White MSS, Box 5. 55. White to Munro, Concerning Financial Control in Haiti," 56. SD 838.51/2364%, "Policy change was made in a conference by Scott, Nov. 19, 1931. The policy 1931. with the Secretary of State on Mar. 11, of Haiti Fraught With 57. Ernest Gruening, "Our 'Disoccupation'" 3. Problems," >> NYT, Mar. 29, 1931, Pt. IX, p. Many Scott to W. C. Thurston, Oct. 17, 1930. 58. SD 838.6463/27, Oct. 28, 1930. Also SD 838.77/ 59. SD 838.77/389, Scott to Thurston, Also SD 838.77/400, Munro to 393, Munro to Stimson, May 8, 1931. de la Rue to Stimson, Oct. Stimson, Nov. 19, 1931. Also SD 838.77/390, 16, 1930. Munro to Stimson, May 8, 1931. Also 60. Ibid. Also SD 838.77/393, Haitian Railways, Nov. 28, 1930. SD 838.77/391, D. R. Heath report on Box 14. Also Munro to White, Mar. 30, 1932; White MSS, 8, 1932. 61. SD 838.51/2569, White to Armour, the Dec. Division of Latin American 62. "Memorandum by the Chief of FR, 1933, V, 785-38. Affairs," by Edwin C. Wilson, ca. Apr. 3, 1933; conversation between W. W. 63. SD 838.00/2852, "Conditions in Haiti," Lancaster and White, July 17, 1930. Hull, Nov. 10, 1933. 64. SD 838.516/274, J. H. Perkins to 1935, IV, 724-28. 65. Hull to Francis White, June 28, 1935; FR, Feb. 28, 1933; NA, Recmemorandum by E. C. Wilson, of 66. "Haiti," to the Seventh International Conference ords of the U.S. delegation E190, Box 1, "Survey: Haiti." American States, 1933, RG43, 1932; FR, 1932, V, 693-94. Munro to 67. Armour to Stimson, Nov. 19, signed Sept. 3; ibid., pp. 671-78. Stimson, Sept. 14, 1932, enclosing treaty 1933; FR, 1933, V, 710-13: 68. Armour to Stimson, Jan. 2, ibid., 713-14. Armour to Hull, 69. Stimson to Armour, Jan. 9, 1933; pp. June 5, 1933; ibid., pp. 745-46. 1933; Edgar B. Nixon (ed.), Franklin 70. Phillips to Roosevelt, Aug, 3, Mass.: Belknap Press, D. Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs (Cambridge, 1969), I, 343. Series No. 46: Accord of Aug. 7, 1933; FR, 71. Executive Agreement 1933, V, 755-61. (Fort-au-Prince), Aug. 10, 1933. Armour to 72. L'Action Nationale 762-63. Also SD 838.51/2721, Armour to Hull, Aug. 9, 1933; FR, 1933, V, Un Désastre; Paccord du 7 aolt 1933 Hull, Oct. 19, 1933. Emile Cauvin, LImprimerie Haîtienne (ed.), (Port-au-Prince: Imp. Haitienne, 1933). -61. (Fort-au-Prince), Aug. 10, 1933. Armour to 72. L'Action Nationale 762-63. Also SD 838.51/2721, Armour to Hull, Aug. 9, 1933; FR, 1933, V, Un Désastre; Paccord du 7 aolt 1933 Hull, Oct. 19, 1933. Emile Cauvin, LImprimerie Haîtienne (ed.), (Port-au-Prince: Imp. Haitienne, 1933). --- Page 313 --- NOTES TO PAGES 227-232 Imp. Haitienne, 1934). Also SD 838.51/ Pour Thistoire (Port-au-Prince: Nov. 29, 1933. 2747%, G. A. Drew to Hull, Out of Haiti," Nation, 73. Ernest Gruening, "At Last We're Getting 700-1. Also SD 838.51/2750, CXXXVIII, No. 3598 (June 20, 1934), Civil Liberties Union, to W. Phillips, Harry F. Ward, Secretary, American Dec. 1, 1933. Nov. 16, 1933, and Roosevelt to Vincent, 74. Vincent to Roosevelt, 767-68. Nov. 29, 1933; FR, 1933, V, 764-66, 1933, quoted in Bellegarde, Des75. Gruening to Bellegarde, Sept. 14, salines a parlé, pp. 125-27. Memoirs of Cordell Hull (New York: Macmillan 76. Cordell Hull, The Co., 1948), I, 333. Armour to Hull, Dec. 4, 1933, enclosing Barau to 77. SD 838.51/2755, Hull to State Department, Dec. Vincent, Nov. 22, 1933. SD 838.51/2785, Dec. 1, 1933; FR, 1933, V, 770-71. 5, 1933. See also Phillips to Armour, clippings of Dec. 1, 78. SD 838.51/2752 enclosing Haitian newspaper Dec. 14, 1933; FR, 1933, V, 1933. Armour to Acting Secretary of State, 775-76. Barau to Hull, Dec. 5, 1933, and Hull to Barau, 79. SD 838.51/2751%, Dec. 9, 1933. with Albert Blanchet, Haitian 80. Hull memorandum of conversation LC, Cordell Hull Papers. NYT, minister to Washington, Jan. 27, 1934; Jan. 17, 1934, p. 12. "Memorandum by the Chief of the Division of 81, Edwin C. Wilson, 3, 1933; FR, 1933, V, 735-38. Latin American Affairs," ca. April Nov. 22, 1933. 82. SD 838.51/2788, Hull to State Council, Department, Inc., Annual Report, 1935 83. Foreign Bondholders Protective Also SD 838.516/387, White to Hull, (New York, 1936P), pp. 124, 126. July 15, 1935. Armour to Hull, Aug. 30, 1934, enclosing transla84. SD 838.00/3259, Aug, 24, 1934. tion of article from Le Temps (Port-au-Prince), "The Haitian Pilot Plant," 85. Roosevelt quoted in Frank Freidel, Politics, I, No. 2 (March, 1944), 43-45. SD 838.00/3232, Armour to Hull, 86. NYT, Aug. 15, 1934, p. 5. Also Aug. 15, 1934. CHAPTER 12 American Policy in Nicaragua (New York: 1. Henry L. Stimson, 1927), pp. 108, 115. Charles Scribner's Sons, USMC (Ret.), "Haiti: A Case Study in 2. Robert D. Heinl, Jr., COL, No. 20 (May 16, 1964), 15-21. Freedom," New Republic, CL, /3232, Armour to Hull, 86. NYT, Aug. 15, 1934, p. 5. Also Aug. 15, 1934. CHAPTER 12 American Policy in Nicaragua (New York: 1. Henry L. Stimson, 1927), pp. 108, 115. Charles Scribner's Sons, USMC (Ret.), "Haiti: A Case Study in 2. Robert D. Heinl, Jr., COL, No. 20 (May 16, 1964), 15-21. Freedom," New Republic, CL, --- Page 314 --- NOTES TO PAGES 232-237 Mar. 30, 1932; White MSS, Box 14. 3. Munro to Francis White, Assistance to Haiti, Mission 4. United Nations, Mission of Technical to Haiti, p. 218. Haiti of the Sixties, Object of International Con5. Leslie F. Manigat, Center of Foreign Policy Research, 1964), cern (Washington: Washington p. 27. Association Information Service, V, No. 15 6. Buell, Foreign Policy (Oct. 2, 1929), 327-92. USMC (Ret.), "Haiti: Impacts of 7. Robert Debs Heinl, Jr., COL, unpublished paper presented to American Occupation, 1915-1934," Faculty Club, Apr. 18, 1969. faculty seminar at Harvard University to W. R. Scott, Feb. 16, 1932. 8. SD 838.51/2396, Cumberland 1934, p. 77. 9. Annual Report, Fiscal Representative, in the Dominican Republic and 10. Goldwert, The Constabulary Nicaragua, pp. vi-vii. Face au peuple et a Thistoire (Port-au-Prince: 11. François Duvalier, Imp. de l'Etat, 1961), pp. 121-26. Parenton, "Class Structure and 12. Roland Wingfield and Vernon Social J. Forces, XLIII, No. 3 (May, Class Conflict in Haitian Society," 1965), 338-47. Bouchereau, Haiti et ses femmes (Port-au13. 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Mr. Long was comptroller of the Apr. 22, 1967, and Feb. 3, to 1918 and vice-president of Haitian-American Sugar Co. from 1916 from 1918 to 1920. the West Indies Trading Co., Port-au-Prince, with Dana G. Munro, Princeton, N.J., Munro, Dana G. Personal interview chief of the Division of Latin American Feb. 28, 1968. Dr. Munro was in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Affairs and then minister to Haiti . Long was comptroller of the Apr. 22, 1967, and Feb. 3, to 1918 and vice-president of Haitian-American Sugar Co. from 1916 from 1918 to 1920. the West Indies Trading Co., Port-au-Prince, with Dana G. Munro, Princeton, N.J., Munro, Dana G. Personal interview chief of the Division of Latin American Feb. 28, 1968. Dr. Munro was in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Affairs and then minister to Haiti --- Page 329 --- Index 7, 1938, 225-27, Blassingame, John W., 120 Accord of August Bobo, Rosalvo, 71-74, 78 Borah, William E., 17, 184, 204-5 Adee, Alvey A., 31 Borno, Louis, 15, 16, 87 n, 126, 128, Alexis, Stephen, 151 182-38, 135, 147, 150, 161, 189Allen, John H., 48 98, 201-2, 210-13, 217, 219-20 American Club (Port-au-Prince), Bryan, William Jennings, 9, 46-58, 125, 187, 220 Corpora61-62, 75, 224 American International Butler, Smedley Darlington, 8, 17, tion, 111-12 78-81, 84-86, 89-90, 93-94, 97S.S. American Legion, 227 100, 110, 116, 123-24, 129, 136, Armour, Norman, 111, 226, 228 140, 147, 155, 213 Associated Press (AP), 204 Butler, Thomas S., 80 Atlanta Compromise (1895), 13 Aux Cayes massacre, 199-200, 20242, 71, 82-86, 91, 102-4 Cacos, Démosthène P., 217-18 Calixte, William B., 65, 66n, 68Bailly-Blanchard, Arthur, 48, 144, Caperton, 71-79, 83-84 69, Catlin, Albertus W., 101-2 Banana wars, 5, 8, 9 39-41, Cayes massacre, 199-200, 202-5 Banque Contract (1910), 164; Cercle Bellevue Club (Port-au45, 49-51, 60, 129-31, Prince), 140, 191 (1922), 131, 164 Charlemagne (Peralte), 102-3 Banque Nationale de la République Claims Commission (1919), 161, d'Haiti, 33, 38-41, 48-53, 56, 6061, 69, 76, 109, 128-30, 154, 161, Club 163 Bellevue (Port-au-Prince), 163, 165, 207, 224-25, 229, 234 140, 191 Barau, Justin, 228 103, Colby, Bainbridge, 119, 130 Barnett, George, 79 n, 84-85, Cole, Eli K., 85, 89, 92, 94-95, 98, 106, 119 109-10, 113, 117, 146 Beach, Edward L., 71-74, Colmore, Charles Blayney, 122 Bellegarde, Dantès, 227 Committee of Public Safety (PortBig Stick Policy, 44, 231 au-Prince, 1915), 73 Blaine, James G., 3, 81 Barnett, George, 79 n, 84-85, Cole, Eli K., 85, 89, 92, 94-95, 98, 106, 119 109-10, 113, 117, 146 Beach, Edward L., 71-74, Colmore, Charles Blayney, 122 Bellegarde, Dantès, 227 Committee of Public Safety (PortBig Stick Policy, 44, 231 au-Prince, 1915), 73 Blaine, James G., 3, 81 --- Page 330 --- INDEX Constitution of 1918, 96-100, 108, Etienne, Frank Oscar, E., 65 211, 215 n, 218 111, 113, 118, 155-56, 192; Evans, Amendments (1928), 179, 191Plan, 61 Farnham 51-52 Farnham, Roger L., 48-50, 52-53, Convention budgétaire, 178 55-57, 60-61, 112, 117, 182, 162, Coolidge, Calvin, 184, 104, 119, 122, 176, 184-85, 223 Corvée, 11, 100-102, First National Bank (New York), P., 200 Cotton, Joseph Henry P., 208 Coulthard, G. R., 151 Fletcher, (President's Council of State, 11, 99, 192, 210-12 Forbes Commission for Study and ReCromer, Earl of, 126, 217 Commission Conditions in the RepubCrowder, Enoch H., 123 view of 1930), 125, 143, 166, Cumberland, W. W., 81, 128, 189, lic of Haiti, 218, 221; Mem148, 157, 163, 165-66, 166 n, 167, 182, 197, 208-16, 169, 172, 176, 178, 180, 182, 189bership, 208 208-13, 21690, 234 Forbes, W. Cameron, Cutts, R. M., 198, 218 Bondholders Protective Foreign Daniels, Josephus, 57, 59, 60, 66, 73, Council, 229 74, 77-78, 84, 99, 101, 103 n, Fort Rivière, 84-85 105-6, 110, 114 Franck, Henry A., 119 183Damien, 196 Freeman, George F., 177, 181, Dartiguenave, Philippe Sudre, 7285, 197-98, 209-10, 220 77, 79-81, 91-92, 97, 98, 110-11, Fuller, Paul, 62 113, 127-30, 132-33, 190 Furniss, Henry W., 49 Davis, R. B., 76 Denby, Edwin, 123 General Sugar Company, de la Rue, Sidney, 167, 170, 191, Génération de Toccupation, 23, 150, 198, 218, 221, 223, 236 Descartes (French warship), 66 Germans in Haiti, 34-36, 38-41, 52Douglass, Frederick, 31 53, 58, 91-96, 98, 130 Duvalier, François, 23, 83 n, 232, Good Neighbor Policy, 18, 165, 198, 226-27, 231-32 W. R. Grace and Company, 37 Echo, L' (newspaper), 93 Gross, Christian, 195 Ecole Militaire, 87 Gruening, Ernest, 17, 120-22, 227 Elections, (1918) 98-99; (1926) Grummon, Stuart, 145, 148, 159, 156, 191; (1928) 192-98; (1930) 193-94, 210-12, 219 Guantânamo Bay, Cuba, 31, 56-57, Ethelberga Syndicate (London), (newspaper), 93 Gross, Christian, 195 Ecole Militaire, 87 Gruening, Ernest, 17, 120-22, 227 Elections, (1918) 98-99; (1926) Grummon, Stuart, 145, 148, 159, 156, 191; (1928) 192-98; (1930) 193-94, 210-12, 219 Guantânamo Bay, Cuba, 31, 56-57, Ethelberga Syndicate (London), --- Page 331 --- INDEX Haiti-Santo Domingo Independence Society, 121 Légitime, F. Deus, 72 Haitian-American Sugar Company Lejeune, John A., 79, 105-6 (HASCO), 95, 169, 171, 178 Lescot, Elie, 230 Hamburg-American Line, 34-36 Leyburn, James G., 21, 144 Harding, Warren G., 107, 118-19, Lindbergh, Charles, 191 133, 144, 164, 169 Little, Louis McCarty, 95, 141, HASCO (Haitian-American 214n, 220 Company), 95, Sugar Loan consolidation 169, 171, 178 161-65 (1922), 183, Heinl, Robert D., Jr., 140n, 233 Herr Herskovits, Melville J., 236 Lucas, 93 Hoetink, H., 20n Hooker, Richard C., 102 MacCorkle, W. A., 170 Hoover, Herbert C., 14, 16, 196, McCormick Committee, See Senate 200-201, 205-8, 214; n, 222 Hearings. Howe, Louis, 112 McCormick, Medill, 121-22, 148 Hughes, Charles Evans, 123-24, McDonald, James P., 37, 54, 71 131, 133-34, 177 U.S.S. Machias, 60 Hull, Cordell, 224, 227-29 Mcllhenny, John A., 97n, 110-14, Hurst, Anne, 145 116-17, 119, 129-32, 144, 162, 165 McRoberts, Samuel, 38 Ichicawa, J. A., 92 Mahan, Alfred Thayer, 3, 31 Inman, Samuel Guy, 90, 204 Manigat, Leslie F., 38 International Claims Mars, Jean Price-, 23, 150 161, 163 Commission, Martial law, 74-75, 117, 120, 123, Isthmian Policy (1927), 231 133, 190 Marvin, George, 119 Johnson, James Weldon, 17, 118-20 Maumus, A. J, 132 Jolibois, Joseph, fils, 196, 219 Mayer, F. L., 130 Mayo, Henry T., 106 Karlsruhe (German warship), 58 Menos, Solon, 72 Kellogg, Frank B., 147 Millspaugh, Arthur C., 126-28, 158, Kerney, James, 208, 210, 215 n 161, 172, 178-79, 191 King, William H., 17, 134, 190, 204 Môle Mitchell, Charles E., 164 Knapp, H. S., 101, 116 Saint-Nicolas, 30-31, 52-53, Knox, Philander C., 39, 40, 44-45 56-58, 61, 72 Monroe Doctrine, 43, 58, 114, 204, Lane, Frank K., 74 231-32 Lansing, Robert, 48, 57-60, 62, 67, Montevideo 227-29 Conference (1933), 70-73, 75, 77, 98, 114-15, 131 Montreal Lee, Higginson and Company, 162 (French ship), 94 Leger, J. N., 72 Moravia, Charles, 195 J. P. Morgan and Company, 132 43, 58, 114, 204, Lane, Frank K., 74 231-32 Lansing, Robert, 48, 57-60, 62, 67, Montevideo 227-29 Conference (1933), 70-73, 75, 77, 98, 114-15, 131 Montreal Lee, Higginson and Company, 162 (French ship), 94 Leger, J. N., 72 Moravia, Charles, 195 J. P. Morgan and Company, 132 --- Page 332 --- INDEX Roosevelt Corollary (1904), 44 Moton, Robert R., 185 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 74, 841 n, 90, Munro, Dana G., 118, 124, 185, 201, 99-100, 106, 108, 110-12, 116-18, 217 n, 220-23, 226, 282 138, 214 n, 218, 226-27, 229-30 Myers, John, 143 Roosevelt, Henry L. (Harry), 111120-21, 194, Nation (magazine), Root, Elihu, 43 224n for the Ad- Roumain, Jacques, 151 218-19 National Association Roy, Eugene, 211-12, vancement of Colored People Russell, John H., 95-96, 101-2, 106, (NAACP), 120 124-29, 185, 140-48, 145-47, 156, National City Bank of New York, 161, 172, 174, 176, 178, 183, 18917, 37-39, 48, 50, 57,6 61, 109, 129202, 207-18, 220-21 32, 154, 162-65, 224, 229 Russell, Mrs. John H., 174, 209 National Geographic (magazine), Sam, Vilbrun Guillaume, 64-66, 72 National Railway of Haiti, 37-38, Samanà Bay, Dominican Republic, 40, 48, 52, 60, 73, 132, 161-63, 30, 57 171, 223 Scott, W. R., 185, 222 Négritude, 23, 151, 235-36 Seligmann, Herbert J., 120 Neville, Wendell C., 88 Senate Hearings (Hearings Before New Republic (magazine), 22A n a Select Committee on Haiti and Norris, George W., 134 Santo Domingo, 1921-22), 84, 103-4, 107, 109, 117, 120-25, 214; Open Door Policy, 5-7 Membership, 121 n HearOreste, Michel, 50-51 Senate Inquiry. See Senate ings. 16, 158, 175, Panama Canal, 5, 9, 43, 44, 56 Service Technique, 189, 194, 196-97, P.C.S. (Plaine du Cul-de-Sac) Rail177-78, 180-87, road, 86-37, 162 209, 220-21, 236 169, 175 Peralte, Charlemagne, 102-3 Sinclair Oil Company, Perkins, James H., 224 Smith, Madison R., 51 37-39 Powell, William F., 36 Speyer and Company, Company, 178 President's Commission for Study Standard Fruit 198-201, 205, and Review of Conditions in the Stimson, Henry L, Republic of Haiti (1930). See 208, 218, 222, 231 Forbes Commission. Sylvain, Georges, 120 Progressivism, 13-16 Taft, Edna, 188, 140 69, 187 Treaty of 1915 (Haitian-AmeriRed Cross (American), can), 11, 75-77, 86, 108, 118, 115Robin (caco general), 83 16, 160-61, 164-66, 182 Rockefeller Foundation, 187 Republic of Haiti (1930). See 208, 218, 222, 231 Forbes Commission. Sylvain, Georges, 120 Progressivism, 13-16 Taft, Edna, 188, 140 69, 187 Treaty of 1915 (Haitian-AmeriRed Cross (American), can), 11, 75-77, 86, 108, 118, 115Robin (caco general), 83 16, 160-61, 164-66, 182 Rockefeller Foundation, 187 --- Page 333 --- INDEX Turner, T. C., 104 Welles, Sumner, 131 Turrill, J. S., 127, 195 n Wells, Clark H., 101, 104-5 Tuskegee Institute, 183, 185 White, Francis, 143, 213, 222, 224, Union Patriotique, 120-22, 129, 152 White, William Allen, 59, 73, 208United Fruit Company, 53, 171, 175 United Press (UP), 204 Williams, Alexander S., 105 Wilson, Edwin C., 225 Valcin, Virgile, 151 Wilson Plan, 62 Vanderlip, Frank A., 38, 40 Wilson, Woodrow, 8-10, 15, 46-47, Versailles Peace Conference 53-56, 58-59, 61-62, 67, 70-71, (1919), 108, 115 88, 106, 114-15, 118-19, 131, 144 Vezina, Elie, 208 Wise, Frederick M., 103, 106 Villard, Oswald Garrison, 120 World's Work (magazine), 119-20 Vincent, Sténio, 219-21, 226-28, U.S.S. Wright, 200-201 Voorhies, Walter, 224 n "X,"72-78 Waller, Littleton W. T., 8, 78-81, Young, A. N., 169 91, 103, 145 Washington, Booker T., 18, 183 Zamor, Charles, 83 Weatherly, Ulysses B., 157 Zimmermann Telegram, 93 --- Page 334 --- About the Author Hans Schmidt graduated from the University of California at Berkeley and secured his master's and doctor's degrees at Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey. At present he is senior lecturer ofl history at the University of Hong Kong.